BM  600  .S3  1909 

Schechter,  S.  1847-1915. 
Some  aspects  of  rabbinic 
theology 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF 
RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON  •    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA   •    SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF 
RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 


^^<^i 

nf 

Tfff^':. 

V 

MAR 

15 

'  1909 

%£i 

^mx0 

BY 

V 


S.  SCHECHTER,  M. A.,  Litt.D.  (Cantab.) 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1909 

^//  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1909, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  January,  1909. 


J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


Wo 

LOUIS   MARSHALL,   ESQUIRE 
JEW  AND  AMERICAN 


PREFACE 

The  contents  of  this  book  have  grown  out  of  a 
course  of  lectures  delivered  at  various  learned  centres, 
and  a  series  of  essays  published  in  th.Q  Jewish  Quar- 
terly Review.  These  essays  began  to  appear  in  the 
year  1894.  They  attracted  some  notice,  and  were 
utiUsed  by  several  writers  on  theological  subjects, 
both  with  and  without  due  acknowledgment.  They 
are  now  presented  to  the  public  in  an  expanded  form, 
revised  and  corrected,  and  increased  by  new  chapters 
and  other  additional  matter,  amounting  to  about  half 
of  the  bulk  of  this  volume. 

The  first  chapter,  which  is  introductory,  offers  the 
reader  a  fair  notion  of  the  nature  of  our  subject  as 
conceived  by  the  author,  the  point  of  view  from  which 
he  approaches  it,  the  inherent  difficulties  in  its  treat- 
ment, and  the  manner  in  which  he  has  tried  to  accom- 
plish his  task.  Yet  a  few  supplementary  remarks 
seem  to  be  necessary. 

This  volume  represents  no  philosophic  exposition 
of  the  body  of  doctrine  of  the  Synagogue,  nor  does 
it  offer  a  description  of  its  system  of  ethics.  Both 
the  philosophy  of  the  Synagogue  and  its  ethics  have 
been  treated  in  various  works  by  competent  scholars 
belonging  to  different  schools  of  thought.  The  main 
aim  of  such  works  is,   however,  as  it  would  seem. 


viii  PREFACE 

interpretation,  more  often  re-interpretation.  The 
object  of  the  following  pages  is  a  different  one.  The 
'  task  I  set  myself  was  to  give  a  presentation  of  Rab- 
binic opinion  on  a  number  of  theological  topics  as 
offered  by  the  Rabbinic  literature,  and  forming  an 
integral  part  of  the  religious  consciousness  of  the 
bulk  of  the  nation  or  "  Catholic  Israel." 

Keeping  this  end  in  view,  I  considered  it  advisable 
not  to  intrude  too  much  interpretation  or  paraphrase 
upon  the  Rabbis.  I  let  them  have  their  own  say  in 
their  own  words,  and  even  their  own  phraseology,  so 
far  as  the  English  idiom  allowed.  My  work  con- 
sisted in  gathering  the  materials  distributed  all  over 
the  wide  domain  of  Rabbinic  literature,  classifying, 
sifting,  and  arranging  them,  and  also  in  ascertaining 
clearly  and  stating  in  simple,  direct  terms  the  doc- 
trines and  theological  concepts  that  they  involved, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  convey  to  the  student  a  clear 
notion  of  the  Rabbinic  opinion  of  the  doctrine  under 
discussion.  In  cases  where  opinion  differed,  the 
varying  views  were  produced,  and  so  were  inconsist- 
encies pointed  out,  stating,  however,  when  there  was 
sufficient  authority  for  doing  so,  what  the  prevaiHng 
opinion  in  the  Synagogue  was.  Where  such  author- 
ity was  lacking,  it  was  assumed  that  the  Synagogue 
allowed  both  opinions  to  stand,  neither  opinion  con- 
taining the  whole  truth,  and  being  in  need  of  quaUfi- 
cations  by  the  opposite  opinion. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  made  little  use  of  such  matter 
as  may  be  described  as  mere  legend  and  fancy,  fall- 


PREFACE  ix 

ing  within  the  province  of  folk-lore  and  apocalypse 
rather  than  belonging  to  the  domain  of  theology. 
These  represent  the  chaff,  an  inevitable  growth  in 
the  field  of  religion.  Now  and  then  a  grain  of  truth 
may  be  detected  in  it,  but  as  a  rule  the  chaff  serves 
more  often  to  hide  the  grain  of  truth  from  sight.  To 
the  practised  eye  of  the  student,  such  passages  appear 
as  "  theological  curiosities,"  either  heedlessly  repeated 
or  surreptitiously  inserted  in  the  text.  The  works  in 
which  this  chaff  grew  most  exuberantly  have  a  strong 
family  likeness  with  certain  Pseudepigrapha,  which 
were  a  product,  not  of  the  Synagogue,  but  of  the  vari- 
ous sects  hovering  on  the  borderland  of  Judaism,  on 
which  they  may  have  left  some  mark  by  a  few  stray 
passages  finding  their  way  even  into  the  older  Rab- 
binic literature.  The  Hebrew  works,  however,  which 
are  especially  conspicuous  for  the  affinity  of  their 
contents  or  the  larger  part  of  their  contents  with 
those  Pseudepigrapha,  are  of  a  later  date.  They 
make  their  appearance  under  disguise,  betraying  suffi- 
ciently their  origin  by  their  bewildering  contents  as 
well  as  by  their  anachronisms.  They  were  admitted 
into  the  Synagogue  only  under  protest,  so  to  speak. 
The  authorities  seem  to  have  been  baffled,  some  dis- 
owning them,  whilst  others  are  overawed  by  their 
very  strangeness  and  apologise  for  their  existence,  — 
or,  reinterpret  them.  The  writings  are  thus  of  little 
help  to  the  student  of  Rabbinic  opinion,  though  they 
may  be  of  service  to  the  worker  on  the  field  of  the 
Pseudepigrapha. 


X  PREFACE 

As  really  representative  of  such  opinion,  we  can 
only  take  into  account  the  Talmudic  and  the  recog- 
nised Midrashic  literature,  or  the  "  great  Midrashim." 
But  even  in  these  authoritative  works  we  have  first  to 
separate  all  that  is  stray  and  peculiar  of  the  nature 
just  indicated,  and  to  eliminate  a  great  deal  of  polemi- 
cal matter  only  uttered  under  provocation  in  the  heat 
of  controversy,  and  to  subject  the  whole  of  it  to  the 
test  of  the  religious  consciousness  of  Israel. 

This  literature  covers,  as  stated  elsewhere,  many 
centuries,  and  was  produced  in  widely  differing  cHmes 
amid  varying  surroundings  and  ever-changing  con- 
ditions, and  was  interrupted  several  times  by  great 
national  catastrophes  and  by  the  rise  of  all  sorts  of 
sects  and  schisms. 

This  last  circumstance  —  besides  being  productive 
of  bitter  polemics,  as  just  hinted  at  —  could  not  fail 
to  create  new  ''theological  values,"  as  the  modern 
phrase  is,  leading,  for  instance,  to  the  emphasis  upon 
the  significance  of  the  Law  and  even  the  Oral  Law 
and  other  doctrinal  points,  which,  though  questioned 
by  none,  were  never  before  stated  with  such  distinct- 
ness and  in  such  a  challenging  manner. 

The  influence  of  the  historic  events  may  perhaps 
be  best  illustrated  by  the  Hterature  bearing  upon  the 
belief  in  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  Whatever  doubt 
there  may  be  as  to  the  high  antiquity  of  this  doc- 
trine or  as  to  the  varying  phases  it  passed  through 
in  the  early  stages  of  its  history,  no  such  uncertainty 
prevails  as  to  the  opinion  held  by  the  Rabbis  with 


PREFACE  xi 

regard  to  it.  This  opinion  can  easily  be  ascertained 
from  Rabbinic  literature,  which  permits  of  no  doubt 
that  the  belief  in  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  in  its 
general  and  main  features  was  a  firmly  established 
doctrine  of  Rabbinic  Judaism.  The  main  outlines 
are  given  by  Scripture  and  tradition,  but  it  is  history 
which  furnishes  the  details.  These  appear  sometimes 
in  the  form  of  apocalypses,  reflecting  the  events  of 
their  age,  whilst  the  prolonged  suffering  of  Israel, 
and  the  brooding  of  the  nation  over  the  wrongs  in- 
flicted upon  the  people  of  God,  have  the  unfortunate 
result  that  fancy  and  imagination  busy  themselves 
more  with  the  anti-Messiah  and  the  punishment 
awaiting  him  than  with  the  Messiah  and  the  bliss 
coming  in  his  wake.  To  such  an  extent  does  this 
proceed  that  in  some  of  these  apocalypses  the  uni- 
versaHstic  features  of  the  Kingdom  are  almost  ob- 
scured, although,  in  truth,  Israel  never  abandoned 
them  even  amidst  the  worst  distress. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  all  these  excrescences 
which  historic  events  contributed  towards  certain  be- 
liefs and  the  necessary  mutations  and  changes  of 
aspects  involved  in  them,  it  should  be  noted  that 
Rabbinic  literature  is,  as  far  as  doctrine  and  dogma 
are  concerned,  more  distinguished  by  the  consensus 
of  opinion  than  by  its  dissensions.  On  the  whole, 
it  may  safely  be  maintained  that  there  is  little  in  the 
dogmatic  teachings  of  the  Palestinian  authorities  of 
the  first  and  second  centuries  to  which,  for  instance, 
R,  Ashi  of  the  fifth  and  even  R.  Sherira  of  the  tenth 


xu 


PREFACE 


century,  both  leaders  of  Rabbinic  opinion  in  Babylon, 
would  have  refused  their  consent,  though  the  em- 
phasis put  on  the  one  or  the  other  doctrine  may  have 
differed  widely  as  a  result  of  changed  conditions  and 
surroundings.  On  the  other  hand,  a  careful  study 
of  the  Agadic  sayings,  for  instance,  of  R.  Akiba  and 
R.  Meir  of  the  second  century,  will  sufficiently  prove 
that  there  is  little  or  nothing  in  the  dicta  of  these 
great  teachers  which  would  have  prevented  them  from 
subscribing  to  the  same  general  theological  beliefs 
that  inspired  the  homilies  contained  in  the  Seder 
Elijah  and  the  Agadath  Bereshith  compiled  in  the 
seventh  or  in  the  eighth  century,  if  not  much  later. 
Indeed,  many  statements  in  these  books  appearing 
at  the  first  glance  as  new  can  often  be  traced  as  mere 
amplifications  of  teachings  occurring  in  some  older 
collection  of  the  second  and  third  century  in  a  less 
diffuse  form. 

It  was  in  view  of  this  fact  that  I  did  not  consider 
it  necessary  to  provide  the  quotations  given  from  the 
Talmud  and  the  Midrash  with  the  date  of  their 
authors,  assuming  that  as  long  as  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  they  are  in  contradiction  to  some  older  or 
even  contemporary  opinion  they  may  be  regarded  as 
expressive  of  the  general  opinion  of  the  Synagogue. 
Such  a  treatment  of  the  subject  was,  I  thought,  the 
more  justified  as  it  did  not  lie  within  the  scope  of  this 
work  to  furnish  the  student  with  a  history  of  Rabbinic 
theology,  but  rather,  as  already  indicated,  to  give 
some  comprehensive  view  of  a  group  of  theological 


PREFACE  xiii 

subjects  as  thought  out  and  taught  by  the  Synagogue. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  the-  field  lay  entirely 
barren  until  a  comparatively  recent  date.  Indeed, 
when  I  began  to  write  on  the  subject  there  did  not 
exist  a  single  book  or  even  essay  from  which  I  could 
derive  any  instruction  or  which  could  serve  me  as  a 
model  in  the  conception  and  construction  of  the  work. 
Conditions  have  since  considerably  improved,  and 
I  have  had  occasion  in  the  course  of  this  book  to 
gratefully  refer  to  those  who  have  rendered  substan- 
tial contributions  to  this  subject.  With  the  great 
lack  of  preliminary  studies  and  the  absence  of  mono- 
graphs on  subjects  of  Rabbinic  theology,  a  history 
of  its  development  would  thus  be  premature.  Not 
only  will  the  whole  of  the  Agadic  literature  as  well 
as  the  Targumin  have  to  be  carefully  studied,  but  the 
Halachah  also  will  have  to  be  consulted,  for  this  was 
very  sensitive  to  all  shades  and  changes  in  theological 
opinion,  and  in  many  cases  reverberates  with  it.  But 
what  is  mainly  needed  are  good  treatises  on  individual 
doctrines  and  theological  terms  based  on  primary 
sources  and  giving  the  necessary  attention  to  detail. 

The  legitimate  successors  of  the  Talmud  and  the 
Midrash  are  the  legal  codices  and  the  works  of  edifi- 
cation known  as  Books  of  Discipline  {Sifre  Mussar) 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  constituting  the  Halachah  and 
the  Agadah  of  post-Talmudic  Judaism.  Not  only 
do  they  restore  to  us  occasionally  passages  from 
ancient  Rabbinic  collections  now  lost  to  us,  but  they 
afford  us  some  insight  into  the  workings  of  Rabbinic 


xiv  PREFACE 

opinion  after  Israel  had,  through  the  medium  of  the 
Arabic  vernacular,  been  brought  into  contact  with 
Greek  thought,  or  what  professed  to  be  Greek  thought, 
of  different  schools  and  had,  for  the  first  time  per- 
haps, become  really  conscious  of  the  obstacles  on  the 
path  of  belief.  A  few  extracts  from  this  literature  are 
sometimes  given  in  the  text  by  way  of  illustration. 

As  a  treasure-house  of  "  theological  sentiment,"  we 
may  regard  the  Piyutim,  or  the  hymnological  litera- 
ture of  the  mediaeval  Synagogue,  aptly  described 
sometimes  as  a  continuation  or  development  of  the 
Psalms  and  the  ancient  liturgy  of  the  Synagogue. 
Nowhere,  perhaps,  are  the  teachings  of  the  Syna- 
gogue in  reference  to  the  close  relations  between  God 
and  Israel  and  the  permanency  of  the  Covenant  with 
the  Fathers  expressed  with  greater  conviction  and 
more  depth  than  in  the  hymns  recited  in  the  Sabbaths 
between  the  Passover  and  the  Feast  of  Weeks. 
Again,  the  doctrines  as  to  the  meaning  of  sin  in  its 
aspect  of  rebellion  and  its  terrible  consequences,  the 
efficacy  of  repentance,  and  the  helplessness  of  man 
to  obtain  pardon  and  reconciliation  without  assistance 
from  heaven  —  all  these  doctrines  receive  nowhere 
a  more  emphatic  expression  both  in  strains  of  the 
most  exalted  joy  and  of  the  deepest  humiliation  than 
in  the  mediaeval  Synagogue  compositions  for  the 
Penitential  Days,  especially  for  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment. This  will  be  found  to  be  the  case  with  other 
doctrines,  such  as  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures, 
the  significance  of  the  Commandments  as  a  saving 


PREFACE  XV 

factor,  which  forms  the  theme  of  the  Synagogue 
poetry  for  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  or  the  doctrine  of  the 
advent  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  restoration  of  Israel 
to  the  Holy  Land,  which  constitutes  the  subject 
of  elegies  for  the  Ninth  of  Ab  and  the  Consolation 
Sabbaths  succeeding  it. 

It  is  true  that  these  poetical  compositions  cannot 
be  considered  as  representative  of  universal  Rabbinic 
opinion,  in  the  same  measure  as  the  Talmud  and  the 
Midrash.  To  a  certain  extent  they  enjoyed  only 
local  authority,  each  country  having  in  addition  to  the 
common  Prayer  Book  a  liturgical  collection  of  its 
own.  The  ritual  of  the  Spanish  Jews,  for  instance, 
contains  but  few  compositions  emanating  from  the 
Franco-German  School,  or  even  from  their  earlier 
models  written  in  Palestine  and  Babylon.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  simplicity  of  its  diction  and  its 
symmetrical  form.  It  is,  further,  less  cumulative  of 
its  epithets  of  the  Deity,  and  is  sparing  in  allusions 
to  the  Talmud  and  Midrash,  whilst  there  is  in  it  but 
a  minimum  of  Angelology,  which  forms  such  a 
prominent  feature  in  the  sacred  poetry  of  other 
schools,  reflecting  unmistakably  the  influence  of  the 
Chapters  of  the  Chambers  and  similar  mystical  pro- 
ductions. 

Such  differences,  however,  vital  as  they  may  appear 
to  the  metaphysician,  affect  but  slightly  the  main 
features  of  such  doctrines  as  are  above  referred  to 
and  are  discussed  in  the  course  of  these  pages.  In 
these    the    consensus    of    opinion    was    maintained 


xvi  PREFACE 

even  after  Aristotle  became  the  sage  of  Jewish  litera- 
ture and  the  wisdom  of  the  Greeks  was  discovered 
to  be  "bordering  on  the  path  of  the  faith."  Nor 
could  it  be  otherwise.  Starting  from  the  same 
premises,  such  as  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures, 
their  binding  authority  upon  every  Jew,  and  fully 
admitting  the  claim  of  the  Rabbis  to  be  the  only 
legitimate  interpreters  of  these  Scriptures,  —  much 
as  the  various  schools  differed  in  their  definition  of 
inspiration  and  in  their  method  of  eliminating  isolated 
Rabbinic  opinion,  —  and  sharing  in  the  same  hope  of 
the  nation  as  it  found  expression  in  the  doctrine  of 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  —  much  as  they  differed 
in  the  description  of  his  person  and  the  miraculous 
details  accompanying  his  appearance, — they  could 
not  but  arrive  at  the  same  general  conclusions.  Prac- 
tically, they  only  differed  to  agree  in  the  end.  It  was 
only  in  this  way  that  it  came  to  pass  that  Maimonides* 
resum^  of  the  Creed  became  soon  the  object  of 
numberless  hymns  accepted  by  the  Synagogue  at 
large,  and  even  mystics  wrote  commentaries  to  it; 
whilst  there  were  very  few  —  perhaps  none  —  of  the 
rationalising  school  who  would  have  had  any  scruples 
to  read  their  prayers  from  the  common  Prayer  Book 
used  in  Germany  or  France.  If  it  was  not  exactly 
uniformity,  the  unity  of  Israel  was  well  maintained 
—  "  union  of  doctrines,  of  precepts,  of  promises." 

It  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  religious  phe- 
nomena to  observe  the  essential  unity  that  the  Syna- 
gogue maintained,  despite  all  antagonistic  influences. 


PREFACE  xvii 

Dispersed  among  the  nations,  without  a  national 
centre,  without  a  synod  to  formulate  its  principles, 
or  any  secular  power  to  enforce  its  decrees,  the  Syna- 
gogue found  its  home  and  harmony  in  the  heart  of 
a  loyal  and  consecrated  Israel. 

There  was  no  school  of  thought  to  which  it  was 
not  exposed,  no  great  philosophic  or  spiritual  influ- 
ence which  did  not  reach  into  its  life  and  is  not  re- 
flected in  its  development.  These  foreign-born  ideas 
were  all  thoroughly  assimilated  by  the  Synagogue, 
and  mingled  even  with  its  devotion  and  contemplation. 
The  hymn,  "  Royal  Crown,"  by  R.  Solomon  b.  Gabi- 
rol,  in  the  Spanish  ritual,  and  the  "  Song  of  Unity," 
in  the  German  ritual,  both  recited  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  are  sufficient  evidence  of  this  fact,  apart 
from  some  customs  and  usages  of  non-Jewish  origin, 
which  were  thoroughly  converted  to  Judaism  by  the 
Synagogue  in  the  process  of  time.  Having  gained 
an  entrance  by  a  process  of  natural  selection  and 
unconscious  absorption,  the  power  of  Judaism  was 
manifested  in  its  obliteration  of  all  that  was  strange 
and  objectionable  in  such  accretions,  so  strong  were 
its  digestive  powers.  But  equally,  the  vitality  of  the 
Synagogue  was  manifested  in  what  it  eliminated  and 
rejected  as  inconsistent  with  its  existence.  Whenever 
any  influence,  no  matter  by  whom  advanced  or  by 
whatever  power  maintained,  developed  a  tendency  that 
was  contrary  to  a  strict  monotheism,  or  denied  the 
binding  character  of  the  Torah,  or  aimed  to  destroy 
the  unity  and  character  and  calling  of  Israel,  although 


xviii  PREFACE 

it  may  have  gained  currency  for  a  time,  the  Syna- 
gogue finally  succeeded  in  eliminating  it  as  noxious 
to  its  very  existence. 

It  is  this  body  of  Israel  in  which  the  unity  of  the 
Synagogue  was  and  is  still  incorporate  that  I  called 
occasionally  as  witness  in  some  cases  of  religious 
sentiment  wholly  unknown  to  the  outsider.  I  may 
as  well  state  here  that  it  was  my  knowledge  of  this 
Israel  which  gave  the  first  impulse  to  these  essays. 
Having  been  brought  up  among  Jews  who  did  live 
under  the  strict  discipline  of  the  Law  and  were  almost 
exclusively  nurtured  on  the  spiritual  food  of  the 
Talmud  and  Midrashim,  and  having  had  occasion 
thus  to  observe  them  for  many  years,  both  in  their 
religious  joys  and  in  their  religious  sorrows,  I  felt 
quite  bewildered  at  the  theological  picture  drawn  of 
Rabbinic  Judaism  by  so  many  writers.  I  could  not 
but  doubt  their  statements  and  question  their  con- 
clusions. These  doubts  were  expressed  to  friends, 
who  were  at  once  affected  more  or  less  by  my  seep 
tical  attitude  and  urged  me  to  write  down  my  thoughts 
on  the  subject,  which  in  the  course  of  time  took  shape 
in  essays  and  lectures.  The  reader  will,  therefore, 
pardon  if,  in  addition  to  the  written  evidence,  I 
appeal  also  in  a  few  cases  to  living  testimony. 

The  foregoing  remarks  will  suffice  to  prepare  the 
reader  for  what  he  has  to  expect  from  this  book  and 
in  what  he  will  be  disappointed.  I  have  also  pre- 
pared him  for  my  point  of  view,  which  is  further 
developed  in  the  body  of  the  book.     I  have  only  to 


PREFACE  xix 

warn  the  reader  that  this  volume  is  by  no  means 
exhaustive  of  Rabbinic  opinion  on  all  theological 
subjects  dealt  with  in  Rabbinic  literature.  This  book 
represents  only  some  Aspects  of  Rabbinic  Theology. 
Some  doctrines,  such  as,  for  instance,  Immortality, 
Resurrection,  were  only  slightly  touched  upon  ;  whilst 
others,  as  the  Eschatology  of  the  Rabbis  with  regard 
to  the  Day  of  Judgement,  Eternal  Punishment,  and 
similar  topics,  hardly  found  any  place  in  this  volume. 
The  guiding  motive  in  the  choice  of  subjects  was  in 
general  a  selection  of  those  large  and  important  prin- 
ciples in  which  Rabbinic  thought  and  Israel's  faith 
were  most  clearly  represented  and  which  I  found 
were  most  in  need  of  elucidation,  because  so  often 
misunderstood  and  misinterpreted.  If  God  gives  me 
life  and  strength,  I  may  perhaps  one  day  write  more 
aspects  of  Rabbinic  theology. 

As  to  the  nature  of  the  literature  with  which  I  had 
to  deal,  the  reader  will  find  the  necessary  information 
about  it  in  the  Introductory  Chapter,  I  desire  only 
to  add  that  I  did  not  wish  to  multiply  references  in 
my  Notes  when  the  additional  references  brought 
no  further  information  with  them.  Both  the  Talmud 
and  the  Midrashim  are  now  provided  on  the  mar- 
gin or  the  foot  of  the  page  with  ample  references  to 
parallel  passages,  and  the  student  who  is  anxious 
to  farther  pursue  the  subject  can  easily  turn  to  the 
original  sources  with  the  aid  of  the  references  given 
in  the  Notes.  I  have  also  purposely  avoided  in  my 
transliteration  of  Hebrew  words  or  names  all  bewil- 


XX 


PREFACE 


dering  devices  for  representing  the  actual  sound  of 
the  word,  contenting  myself  with  the  ordinary  Roman 
alphabet,  in  spite  of  its  shortcomings. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  thank  Dr.  Alexander  Marx, 
Professor  of  History  in  the  Jewish  Theological  Semi- 
nary of  America,  who  prepared  the  list  of  Abbrevia- 
tions for  me.  I  am  also  indebted  to  Mr.  Joseph  B. 
Abrahams,  Clerk  of  the  Seminary  office,  who  was 
always  at  my  call  during  the  progress  of  this  work. 
I  can  further  hardly  express  sufficiently  my  obliga- 
tions to  my  friend  Rabbi  Charles  Isaiah  Hoffman, 
of  Newark,  N.J.,  for  his  painstaking  reading  of  the 
proofs  and  for  ever  so  many  helpful  suggestions,  by 
which  this  volume  has  profited.  And  last,  but  not 
least,  I  have  to  record  my  special  obligations  to  my 
friend,  Miss  Henrietta  Szold,  who  likewise  read  the 
proof,  and  made  many  a  valuable  suggestion.  I  am 
particularly  grateful  to  her  for  the  excellent  Index 
she  has  prepared  to  this  work,  which  will,  I  am  con- 
vinced, be  appreciated  by  every  reader  of  this  volume. 

s.  s. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


PAGE 


I.    Introductory i 

II.    God  and  the  World 21 

III.  God  and  Israel 46 

IV.  Election  of  Israel 57 

V.    The  Kingdom  of  God  (Invisible)  ...  65 

VI.    The  Visible  Kingdom  (Universal)        .        .  80 

VII.     The  Kingdom  of  God  (National)         .        .  97 

VIII.     The  "Law" 116 

IX.    The  Law  as  personified  in  the  Literature  127 
X.    The   Torah    in    its   Aspect    of   Law    (Miz- 

woth) 138 

XI.    The  Joy  of  the  Law 148 

XII.    The   Zachuth    of    the    Fathers.      Imputed 

Righteousness  and  Imputed  Sin         .        .170 

XIII.  The    Law    of    Holiness    and   the    Law   of 

Goodness 199 

XIV.  Sin  as  Rebellion 219 

XV.    The  Evil  Yezer  :   the  Source  of  Rebellion  242 

XVI.     Man's  Victory  by  the  Grace  of  God,  over 

THE  Evil  Yezer  created  by  God        .        .  264 

XVII.     Forgiveness  and  Reconciliation  with  God  293 


XXI 


xxii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  ^^^^ 

XVIII.    Repentance:   Means  of  Reconciliation       .  313 

Additions  and  Corrections 345 

List  of  Abbreviations  and  Books  not  quoted  with 

Full  Title 349 

Index 353 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF 
RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 


SOME    ASPECTS    OF   RABBINIC 
THEOLOGY 


INTRODUCTORY 

My  object  in  choosing  the  title  "Some  Aspects  of 
Rabbinic  Theology"  is  to  indicate  that  from  the  follow- 
ing chapters  there  must  not  be  expected  either  finality 
or  completeness.  Nor  will  there  be  made  any  attempt 
in  the  following  pages  at  that  precise  and  system- 
atic treatment  which  we  are  rightly  accustomed  to 
claim  in  other  fields  of  scientific  inquiry.  I  have  often 
marvelled  at  the  certainty  and  confidence  with  which 
Jewish  legalism,  Jewish  transcendentalism,  Jewish 
self-righteousness,  are  delineated  in  our  theological 
manuals  and  histories  of  religion;  but  I  have  never 
been  able  to  emulate  either  quality.  I  have  rather 
found,  when  approaching  the  subject  a  little  closer, 
that  the  peculiar  mode  of  old  Jewish  thought,  as  well 
as  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  the  documents  in  which 
this  thought  is  preserved,  "are  against  the  certain," 
and  urge  upon  the  student  caution  and  sobriety.  In 
/  these  introductory  paragraphs  I  shall  try  to  give  some 
^    notion  of  the  difficulties  that  lie  before  us. 

To  begin  with  the  difficulties  attaching  to  the  un- 


l/ 


2         SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

satisfactory  state  of  Rabbinic  documents.  A  promi- 
nent theologian  has,  when  referring  to  the  Rabbis, 
declared  that  one  has  only  to  study  the  Mishnah  to 
see  that  it  was  not  moral  or  spiritual  subjects  which 
engrossed  their  attention,  but  the  characteristic  hair- 
splitting about  ceremonial  trifles.  There  is  an  appear- 
ance of  truth  in  this  statement.  The  Mishnah,  which 
was  compiled  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century 
of  the  C.E.,  consists  of  sixty-one  (or  sixty-three)  trac- 
tates, of  which  only  one,  known  by  the  title  of  "The 
Chapters  of  the  Fathers,"  deals  with  moral  and  spirit- 
ual matters  in  the  narrower  sense  of  these  terms.  Still 
this  is  not  the  whole  truth,  for  there  are  also  other 
tractates,  occupying  about  one-third  of  the  whole 
Mishnah,  which  deal  with  the  civil  law,  the  procedure 
of  the  criminal  courts,  the  regulation  of  inheritance, 
laws  regarding  property,  the  administration  of  oaths, 
marriage,  and  divorce.  All  these  topics,  and  many  sim- 
ilar ones  relating  to  public  justice  and  the  welfare  of 
the  community  as  the  Rabbis  understood  it,  are  certainly 
not  to  be  branded  as  ceremonial  trifles;  and  if  the 
kingdom  of  God  on  earth  means  something  more  than 
the  mystical  languor  of  the  individual,  it  is  difficult  to 
see  on  what  ground  they  can  be  excluded  from  the 
sphere  of  religion.  But,  apart  from  this  consideration 
—  for  it  seems  that  theologians  are  not  yet  agreed  in 
their  answer  to  the  question  whether  it  is  this  world, 
with  all  its  wants  and  complications,  which  should  be 
the  subject  for  redemption,  or  the  individual  soul,  with 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

its  real  and  imaginary  longings  —  there  runs,  parallel 
with  this  Mishnah,  a  vast  literature,  known  under  the 
name  of  Agadah,  scattered  over  a  multitude  of  Tal- 
mudical  and  Midrashic  works,  the  earliest  of  which 
were  compiled  even  before  or  about  the  time  of  the 
Mishnah,  and  the  latest  of  which,  while  going  down 
as  far  as  the  tenth  or  even  the  eleventh  century,  still 
include  many  ancient  elements  of  Rabbinic  thought. 
In  these  compilations  it  will  be  found  that  the  minds 
of  the  so-called  triflers  were  engrossed  also  with  such 
subjects  as  God,  and  man's  relation  to  God ;  as  right- 
eousness and  sin,  and  the  origin  of  evil;  as  suffering 
and  repentance  and  immortality;  as  the  election  of 
Israel,  Messianic  aspirations,  and  with  many  other  cog- 
nate subjects  lying  well  within  the  moral  and  spiritual 
sphere,  and  no  less  interesting  to  the  theologian  than  to 
the  philosopher. 

It  is  these  Talmudic  and  Midrashic  works,  to  which 
I  should  like  to  add  at  once  the  older  Jewish  liturgy, 
which  will  be  one  of  the  main  sources  of  the  material 
for  the  following  chapters.  Now  I  do  not  want  to 
enter  here  into  bibliographical  details,  which  may  be 
found  in  any  good  history  of  Jewish  literature.  But 
it  may  have  been  noticed  that  I  spoke  of  "compila- 
tions"; and  here  a  difficulty  comes  in.  For  a  com- 
pilation presupposes  the  existence  of  other  works, 
of  which  the  compiler  makes  use.  Thus  there  must 
have  been  some  Rabbinic  work  or  works  composed 
long  before  our  Mishnah,  and  perhaps  as  early  as 


4         SOME  ASPECTS   OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

30  c.E.^  This  work,  or  collection,  would  clearly  have 
provided  a  better  means  for  a  true  understanding  of 
the  period  when  Rabbinism  was  still  in  an  earlier  stage 
of  its  formation,  than  our  present  Mishnah  of  200  c.E. 
Is  it  not  just  possible  that  many  a  theological  feature, 
characteristic  of  the  earlier  Rabbis,  found  no  place 
in  the  Mishnah,  either  because  of  its  special  design  or 
through  the  carelessness  or  fancy  of  its  compiler,  or 
through  some  dogmatic  consideration  unknown  to  us? 
Is  it  not  likely  that  the  teaching  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  the 
antinomian  consequences  of  which  became  so  manifest 
during  the  second  century,  brought  about  a  growing 
prejudice  against  all  allegoric  explanations  of  the 
Scriptures,^  or  that  the  authorities  refused  to  give  them 
a  prominent  place  in  the  Mishnah,  which  was  intended 
by  its  compiler  to  become  the  great  depository  of  the 
Oral  Law?  But  whatever  the  cause,  the  effect  is  that 
we  are  almost  entirely  deprived  of  any  real  contempo- 
rary evidence  from  the  most  important  period  in  the 
history  of  Rabbinic  theology.  The  Psalms  of  Solomon 
*  may,  for  want  of  a  better  title,  be  characterized  as  the 
Psalms  of  the  Pharisees;  but  to  derive  from  them  a 
Rabbinic  theology  is  simply  absurd.     They  have  not 

1  See  D.  Hoffmann,  Magazin  fiir  die  Wissensckafi  des  Judenthums 
(Berlin),  8,  p.  170. 

2  See  the  miD  2"^  of  R.  Eleazar  b.  Jose  of  Galilee,  where  we  read 
that  the  Mashal  (allegoric  interpretation)  was  only  used  in  the  Prophets 
and  in  the  Hagiographa,  "  but  the  words  of  the  Torah  and  command- 
ments thou  must  not  interpret  them  as  MashalP  Cf.  Bacher,  Termi- 
nologies I  122. 


INTRODUCTORY  5 

left  the  least  trace  in  Jewish  literature,  and  it  is  most 
probable  that  none  of  the  great  authorities  we  are  ac- 
quainted with  in  the  Talmud  had  ever  read  a  single  line 
of  them,  or  even  had  heard  their  name.  The  same  is 
the  case  with  other  Apocryphal  and  Apocalyptic  works, 
for  which  Rabbinism  is  often  made  responsible.  How- 
ever strange  it  may  seem,  the  fact  remains  that  whilst 
these  writings  left  a  lasting  impress  on  Christianity, 
they  contributed  —  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the 
Book  of  Ecclesiasticus  —  little  or  nothing  towards  the 
formation  of  Rabbinic  thought.  The  Rabbis  were 
either  wholly  ignorant  of  their  very  existence,  or  stig- 
matised them  as  fabulous,  or  "external"  (a  milder  ex- 
pression in  some  cases  for  heretical),  and  thus  allowed 
them  to  exert  no  permanent  influence  upon  Judaism. 

Passing  from  the  Mishnah  to  the  Talmud  proper 
(the  Gemara)  and  to  the  Midrash,  the  same  fact  meets 
us  again.  They,  too,  are  only  compilations,  and  from 
the  defects  of  this,  their  fundamental  quality,  we  fre- 
quently suffer. 

There  is,  for  instance,  the  interesting  subject  of 
miracles,  which  plays  such  an  important  part  in  the 
history  of  every  religion.  Despite  the  various  attempts 
made  by  semi-rationalists  to  minimise  their  significance, 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  miracles  will  always  remain, 
both  for  believers  and  sceptics,  one  of  the  most  important 
tests  of  the  religion  in  question;  to  the  former  as  a 
sign  of  its  superhuman  nature,  to  the  latter  as  a  proof 
of   its   doubtful   origin.     The   student   is   accordingly 


6         SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

anxious  to  see  whether  the  miraculous  formed  an  essen- 
tial element  of  Rabbinic  Judaism.  Nor  are  we  quite 
disappointed  when  we  turn  over  the  pages  of  the 
Talmud  with  this  purpose  in  view.  There  is  hardly 
any  miracle  recorded  in  the  Bible  for  which  a  parallel 
might  not  be  found  in  the  Rabbinic  literature.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  third  chapter  of  the  Tractate 
Taanith,  called  also  the  ''  Chapter  of  the  Saints," 
is  devoted  to  specimens  of  supernatural  acts  per- 
formed by  various  Rabbis.  But  miracles  can  only 
be  explained  by  more  miracles,  by  regular  epidemics 
of  miracles.  The  whole  period  which  saw  them  must 
become  the  psychological  phenomenon  to  be  explained, 
rather  than  the  miracle-workers  themselves.  But  of 
the  Rabbinical  miracles  we  could  judge  with  far  greater 
accuracy  if,  instead  of  the  few  specimens  still  preserved 
to  us,  we  were  in  possession  of  all  those  stories  and 
legends  which  once  circulated  about  the  saints  of  Israel 
in  their  respective  periods.^ 

Another  problem  which  a  fuller  knowledge  of  these 
ancient  times  might  have  helped  us  to  solve  is  this: 
With  what  purpose  were  these  miracles  worked,  and 
what  were  they  meant  to  prove?  We  are  told  in  i 
Corinthians  (i  22),  that  "the  Jews  ask  for  signs  as  the 
Greeks  seek  for  wisdom."  As  a  fact,  however,  in  the 
whole  of  Rabbinic  literature,  there  is  not  one  single 
instance  on  record  that  a  Rabbi  was  ever  asked  by  his 

1  About  the  probability  that  there  may  have  existed  other  collections 
of  such  stories,  see  Rapoport,  Bikkure  Haittimy  12  78  79. 


INTRODUCTORY 


polleagues  to  demonstrate  the  soundness  of  his  doc- 
trine, or  the  truth  of  a  disputed  Halachic  case,  by 
performing  a  miracle.     Only  once  do  we  hear  of  a 
Rabbi  who  had  recourse  to  miracles  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  that  his  conception  of  a  certain  Halachah  was 
the  right  one.     And  in  this  solitary  instance  the  majority 
declined  to  accept  the  miraculous   intervention  as  a 
demonstration  of  truth,  and  decided  against  the  Rabbi 
who  appealed  to  it.^     Nor,  indeed,  were  such  supernat- 
ural gifts  claimed  for  all  Rabbis.     Whilst  many  learned 
Rabbis  are  said  to  have  ''been  accustomed  to  wonders," 
not  a  single  miracle  is   reported   for  instance  of  the 
great  Hillel,  or  his  colleague,  Shammai,  both  of  whom 
exercised   such   an   important   influence  on  Rabbinic 
Judaism.     On  the  other  hand,  we  find  that  such  men, 
as,   for  instance,   Choni  Hammaagel,^  whose  prayers 
were  much  sought  after  in  times  of  drought,  or  R.  Cha- 
ninah  b.   Dosa,  whose  prayers  were  often  solicited  in 
cases  of  illness,^  left  almost  no  mark  on  Jewish  thought, 
the  former  being  known  only  by  the  wondrous  legends 
circulating  about  him,  the  latter  being  represented  in 
the  whole  Talmud  only  by  one  or  two  moral  sayings.^ 
''Signs,"  then,  must  have  been  as  little  required  from 
the  Jewish  Rabbi  as  from  the  Greek  sophist.     But  if 
this  was  the  case,  we  are  actually  left  in  darkness  about 


1  See  Baba  Mezia,  59  b. 

2  Taanitk,  24  b  ;   cp.  Jer.  Taanith,  64  a,  64  b. 

3  See  Berachoth,  33  a,  and/^r.  Berachoth,  10  b. 
*  Aboih,  3  9.     See  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.  i  283,  p.  2. 


8         SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

the  importance  of  miracles  and  their  meaning  as  a 
religious  factor  in  those  early  times.  Our  chances  of 
clearing  up  such  obscure  but  important  points  would 
naturally  be  much  greater  if  some  fresh  documents 
could  be  discovered. 

As  another  instance  of  the  damage  wrought  by  the 
loss  of  those  older  documents,  I  will  allude  only  here 
to  the  well-known  controversy  between  the  school  of 
Shammai  and  the  school  of  Hillel  regarding  the  ques- 
tion whether  it  had  not  been  better  for  man  not  to  have 
been  created.  The  controversy  is  said  to  have  lasted 
for  two  years  and  a  half.  Its  final  issue  or  verdict  was 
that,  as  we  have  been  created,  the  best  thing  for  us  to 
do  is  to  be  watchful  over  our  conduct.^  This  is  all  that 
tradition  (or  the  compiler)  chose  to  give  us  about  this 
lengthy  dispute;  but  we  do  not  hear  a  single  word 
as  to  the  causes  which  led  to  it,  or  the  reasons  ad- 
vanced by  the  litigant  parties  for  their  various  opinions. 
Were  they  metaphysical,  or  empirical,  or  simply  based, 
as  is  so  often  the  case,  on  different  conceptions  of  the 
passages  in  the  Scripture  germane  to  the  dispute  ?  ^ 
We  feel  the  more  cause  for  regret  when  we  recollect 
that  the  members  of  these  schools  were  the  contempo- 
raries of  the  Apostles;  when  Jerusalem,  as  it  seems, 
was  boiling  over  with  theology,  and  its  market-places 

1  Erubin,  13  /^. 

2  For  other  controversies  of  a  theological  nature  between  the  same 
schools,  see  Gen.  R.,  12  14,  Rosh  Hashanah,  \6  b ',  Chagigah,  12  a\ 
P.  K.6\  b.     Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  i  14. 


INTRODUCTORY  9 

and  synagogues  were  preparing  metaphysics  and  the- 
osophies  to  employ  the  mind  of  posterity  for  thou- 
sands of  years.  What  did  the  Rabbis  think  of  all  these 
aspirations  and  inspirations,  or  did  they  remain  quite 
untouched  by  the  influences  of  their  surroundings? 
Is  it  not  possible  that  a  complete  account  of  such  a 
controversy  as  I  have  just  mentioned,  which  probably 
formed  neither  an  isolated  nor  an  unprecedented  event, 
would  have  furnished  us  with  just  the  information  of 
which  now  we  are  so  sorely  in  need  ? 

In  the  Jewish  liturgy  we  meet  with  similar  difficul- 
ties. It  is  a  source  which  has  till  now  been  compara- 
tively neglected.  Still,  its  contents  are  of  the  greatest 
importance  for  the  study  of  Jewish  theology;  not  only 
on  account  of  the  material  it  furnishes  us,  but  also  for 
the  aid  it  gives  us  in  our  control  over  the  Talmud. 
For  the  latter  is  a  work  which  can  never  be  used  with- 
out proper  discretion.  Like  many  another  great  book 
of  an  encyclopaedic  character,  the  Talmud  has  been 
aptly  described  as  a  work  "full  of  the  seeds  of  all 
things."  But  not  all  things  are  religion,  nor  is  all  re- 
ligion Judaism.  Certain  ideas  of  foreign  religions  have 
found  their  way  into  this  fenceless  work,  but  they  have 
never  become  an  integral  part  of  Jewish  thought. 
Others  again  represent  only  the  isolated  opinions  of 
this  or  that  individual,  in  flagrant  contradiction  to  the 
religious  consciousness  of  Catholic  Israel ;  whilst  others 
again,  especially  those  relating  to  proselytes  or  the  Gen- 
tiles, were  in  many  cases  only  of  a  transitory  character, 


10       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

suggested  by  the  necessities  or  even  the  passions  of 
the  moment,  but  were  never  intended  to  be  taught  as 
doctrine.  In  like  manner  the  exaltation,  by  sectarians, 
of  one  special  doctrine  at  the  cost  of  essential  princi- 
ples of  the  faith  led  at  times  by  way  of  reaction  to  an 
apparent  repudiation  of  the  imphed  heresy ;  whilst  the 
synagogue,  through  its  interpreters,  recognised  the 
true  nature  of  this  apparent  repudiation  and  con- 
tinued to  give  the  objectionable  doctrine  its  proper 
place  and  proportion  among  the  accepted  teachings  of 
Judaism.*  Some  test  or  tests  as  to  the  real  theological 
value  of  a  Talmudic  saying  will,  therefore,  always  be 
necessary  in  making  use  of  the  old  Rabbinic  literature 
as  a  source  of  theology.  The  Jewish  liturgy,  which 
was    from    earliest    times    jealously    guarded    against 

1  See  Weiss  T'll  i  237  and  Joel's  Blicke^  2  170,  seq.  As  an  illustration 
we  refer  here  to  the  well-known  objection  to  the  explanation  of  certain 
laws  (Lev.  22  28  and  Deut.  22  6  and  7)  on  the  mere  principle  of  mercy, 
"  for  he  (who  does  so)  declares  the  attributes  (or  the  laws  dictated  by 
such  attributes)  of  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  mercy,  whilst  they 
are  only  commands "  mTt:i  K^K  jrXI  D^iaH"!  Tt:^r\  h^  niTirU^  ^iBti. 
See  Mishnah  Berachoth,  5  3;  Megillak,  4  9;  Jer.  Berackoth,  9  c  and 
B.  T.  Berackoth^  33  b,  text  and  commentaries.  Cf.  also  Bacher,  Ag. 
Am.f  3  728.  All  these  authorities,  however,  were  set  aside  by  the 
synagogue  which  continued  the  tradition  of  Pseudo- Jonathan  to  Lev. 
22  28  (see  Berliner,  Targunt,  2  85)  and  never  hesitated  to  explain  such 
laws  on  the  principle  of  mercy.  See  Gen.  R.,  75  13 ;  Deut.  R.,  6  1 ; 
Tan.  B.,  3  48  a.  Cf.  also  Gen.  JR.,  33  3,  where  with  reference  to  Ps. 
145  9  the  words  occur  DmXi  KIH  VnnD  \TW.  As  to  mediaeval  au- 
thorities for  the  paitan  Kalir,  see  Buber's  note  to  P.  K.,  98  b.  Cf.  also 
Nachmanides  Commentary  to  Deut.,  22  6  and  7,  and  the  reference 
there  to  Maimonides.  See  also  pHSt'^  Dlpb^  by  Isaac  Zaler,  Warsaw, 
1895,  3  69  a  and  b  and  5  45  3  and  46  a. 


INTRODUCTORY  II 

heresy/  and  which  in  its  essentials  always  was  under 
the  control  of  the  synagogue  at  large,  may  fairly  be 
regarded  as  such  a  test.  Now  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  in  its  broad  outlines  this  liturgy  —  as  far 
as  the  Prayer  Book  is  concerned  —  has  its  origin  in  the 
earliest  Tannaitic  times,  whilst  certain  portions  date 
from  the  pre-Christian  era,  but  it  is  at  present  so  over- 
grown with  additions  and  interpolations,  that  the  orig- 
inal contents  are  hardly  discernible  from  the  constant 
accretions  of  succeeding  ages.  The  Talmud,  and  even 
the  Mishnah,  occasionally  quote  some  ancient  liturgical 
passages,  and  these  might  prove  useful  in  helping  us 
to  fix  their  date.^  But,  unfortunately,  it  was  not  thought 
necessary  to  give  these  quotations  in  full.  They  are 
only  cited  by  the  word  with  which  they  begin,  so  that 
we  are  left  in  uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  contents  of 
the  whole  prayer,  and  have  only  guesses  to  rely  on. 

Even  more  embarrassing  than  these  textual  diffi- 
culties are  those  defects  which  are  inherent  in  the 
peculiar  nature  of  old  Rabbinic  thought.  A  great 
English  writer  has  remarked  "that  the  true  health  of 
a  man  is  to  have  a  soul  without  being  aware  of  it;  to 
be  disposed  of  by  impulses  which  he  does  not  criticise." 

1  See  I.  Elbogen,  Geschichte  des  Achtzehngebets,  Breslau,  1903,  34, 
note  4. 

2  S&Q  Mishnah  Tamid,  5  1.  Pesachif/i,  118  «.  Cf.  Landshut  nb  JVJin 
to  the  n"ltri?  nSl^tr,  and  Elbogen,  as  quoted  above.  See  also  Schech- 
ter's  notes  to  The  Wisdom  of  Ben  Sira  (edited  by  S.  Schechter  and 
C.  Taylor),  to  XXXVI  n  c  (p.  60)  and  LI  \ic  (p.  66),  and  /.  Q.  R. 
10^,  p.  654. 


12       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

In  a  similar  way  the  old  Rabbis  seem  to  have  thought 
that  the  true  health  of  a  religion  is  to  have  a  theology 
I  without  being  aware  of  it;  and  thus  they  hardly  evei 
made  —  nor  could  they  make  —  any  attempt  towards 
working  their  theology  into  a  formal  system,  or  giving 
us  a  full  exposition  of  it.  With  God  as  a  reality, 
Revelation  as  a  fact,  the  Torah  as  a  rule  of  life, 
and  the  hope  of  Redemption  as  a  most  vivid  expec- 
tation, they  felt  no  need  for  formulating  their  dogmas 
into  a  creed,  which,  as  was  once  remarked  by  a  great 
theologian,  is  repeated  not  because  we  believe,  but 
that  we  may  believe.  What  they  had  of  theology, 
they  enunciated  spasmodically  or  ''by  impulses." 
Sometimes  it  found  its  expression  in  prayer  "when 
their  heart  cried  unto  God";  at  others  in  sermons 
or  exhortations,  when  they  wanted  to  emphasise  an 
endangered  principle,  or  to  protest  against  an  in- 
truding heresy.  The  sick-bed  of  a  friend,  or  public 
distress,  also  offered  an  opportunity  for  some  theo- 
logical remark  on  the  question  of  suffering  or  pen- 
ance. But  impulses  are  uncertain,  incoherent,  and 
even  contradictory,  and  thus  not  always  trustworthy. 
The  preacher,  for  instance,  would  dwell  more  on  the 
mercy  of  God,  or  on  the  special  claims  of  Israel,  when 
his  people  were  oppressed,  persecuted,  and  in  want  of 
consolation;  whilst  in  times  of  ease  and  comfort  he 
would  accentuate  the  wrath  of  God  awaiting  the  sinner, 
and  his  severity  at  the  day  of  judgement.  He  would 
magnify  faith  when  men's  actions  were  lacking  in  in- 


INTRODUCTORY 


13 


ward  motive,  but  he  would  urge  the  claim  of  works 
when  the  Law  had  been  declared  to  be  the  strength 
of  sin.  When  the  Law  was  in  danger  he  would  appeal 
to  Lev.  27  43,  "Those  are  the  commandments  which 
the  Lord  commanded  Moses,"  and  infer  that  these 
laws,  and  no  others,  were  to  be  observed  forever,  and 
that  no  subsequent  prophet  might  add  to  them.^  At 
another  time  he  would  have  no  objection  to  introduce 
new  festivals,  e.g.  the  Lighting  of  the  Chanukah 
Candles,  and  even  declare  them  to  be  distinct  commands 
of  God,^  so  long  as  they  were,  as  it  seemed  to  him,  within 
the  spirit  of  the  Law.  He  would  not  scruple  to  give 
the  ideal  man  his  due,  to  speak  of  him  as  forming  the 
throne  of  God,^  or  to  invest  him  with  pre-mundane 
existence ;  ^  but  he  would  watch  jealously  that  he  did 
not  become,  as  it  were,  a  second  god,  or  arrogate  to 
himself  a  divine  worship.  I  shall  have  frequent  occa- 
sion to  point  out  such  apparent  or  actual  contradictions. 
The  Rabbis,  moreover,  show  a  carelessness  and  slug- 
gishness in  the  application  of  theological  principles 
which   must  be   most   astonishing   to   certain   minds 

1  See  r.^.  115^. 

2  Shabbath,  23  d.     See  also/^r.  Sukkah,  53  i/. 

3  See  Gen.  R.  47  6. 

^  See  Gen.  R.w  about  the  pre-mundane  existence  of  the  name  of  the 
Messiah.  Cf.  ibid.  2  4,  about  the  soul  of  the  Messiah.  Ibid.  8  4  mention 
is  made  of  the  souls  of  the  righteous  with  whom  God  took  counsel 
when  he  was  going  to  create  the  world.  See  also  PRE.  3,  text  and 
commentary.  Cf.  also  Joel,  Blicke,  2  I8I  and  S.  E.  160,  text  and  notes, 
and  below,  p.  70.  See  also  Dr.  L.  Ginzberg,  "  Die  Haggada  bei  den 
Kirchenv'dterny^  p.  4,  note  I. 


14       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

which  seem  to  mistake  merciless  logic  for  God-given 
truths.  For  example,  it  is  said:  "He  who  believes  in 
the  faithful  shepherd  is  as  if  he  believes  in  the  word 
of  him  whose  will  has  called  the  world  into  existence." 
.  .  .  "Great  was  the  merit  of  the  faith  which  Israel 
put  in  God;  for  it  was  by  the  merit  of  this  faith  that 
the  Holy  Spirit  came  over  them,  and  they  said  Shirah 
to  God,  as  it  is  said,  'And  they  believed  in  the  Lord 
and  his  servant  Moses.  Then  sang  Moses  and  the 
children  of  Israel  this  song  unto  the  Lord.'"  ^  .  .  . 
Again,  "Our  father,  Abraham,  came  into  the  possession 
of  this  world  and  the  world  hereafter  only  by  the  merit 
of  his  faith."  ^  Of  R.  Jose  it  is  recorded  that  he  said: 
"If  thou  art  desirous  to  know  the  reward  awaiting  the 
righteous,  thou  mayest  infer  it  from  Adam  the  First, 
for  whose  single  transgression  he  and  all  his  posterity 
were  punished  with  death;  all  the  more  then  shall  the 
good  action  of  a  man  confer  bliss  upon  him,  and  justify 
him  and  his  posterity  to  the  end  of  all  generations."  ^ 
Another  Rabbi  tells  us  that  by  the  close  contact  of  the 
serpent  with  Eve,  he  left  in  her  a  taint  which  infected 
all  her  seed,  but  from  which  the  Israelites  were  freed 
when  they  stood  before  Mount  Sinai,  for  there  they 
came  into  immediate  contact  with  the  divine  presence.'* 

1  Mechilta  (ed.  Friedmann),  33  a.     By  Shirah  iTT't!?  is  meant  the 
Song  of  Moses  (Exod.  15). 

2  Mechilta,  ibid. 

3  T.  K.  27  a.     Cf.  Delitzsch,  Hebrew  Translation  of  the  Romans 
(Leipzig,  1870),  p.  82. 

^  Jebamoth^  103  b. 


INTRODUCTORY  1$ 

To  the  professional  theologian,  it  is  certainly  distress- 
ing to  find  that  such  sayings,  which  would  have  made 
the  fortune  of  any  ancient  Alexandrian  theosophist 
or  modern  Hegelian  of  the  right  wing,  were  never 
properly  utilised  by  the  Rabbis,  and  ''theologically 
fructified,"  nor  ever  allowed  to  be  carried  to  what 
appears  to  the  scholastic  mind  as  their  legitimate 
consequences.  The  faithful  shepherd  and  the  bliss- 
conferring  righteous  were  never  admitted  into  the 
Rabbinic  pantheon ;  the  concession  made  to  the  patri- 
arch was  never  extended  to  his  posterity,  faith  only 
modifying  and  vivifying  works,  but  not  superseding 
them,  and  even  the  direct  contact  with  the  Deity, 
which  the  fact  of  being  present  at  the  Revelation  of 
Sinai  offered  to  every  Israelite,  were  conceived  of  only 
as  the  beginning  of  a  new  life,  with  new  duties  and 
obligations. 

This  indifference  to  logic  and  insensibility  to  theologi- 
cal consistency  seems  to  be  a  vice  from  which  not  even 
the  later  successors  of  the  Rabbis  —  the  commentators 
of  the  Talmud  —  emancipated  themselves  entirely.  I 
give  one  example :  We  read,  in  the  name  of  R.  Akiba, 
*' Everything  is  foreseen;  freedom  of  choice  is  given. 
And  the  world  is  judged  by  grace,  and  yet  all  is  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  work.'"  This  is  the  usual  reading. 
But  some  of  the  best  Mss.  have  the  words,  "And  not 
according  to  the  amount  of  work."  ^    The  difference 

1  See  Dr.  Taylor's  Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,  Appendix  152. 
I  add  here  Ms.  Oxford  Heb.,  c.  17.    Parma,  802,  975.     See  Machzor 


1 6        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

between  the  two  readings  being  so  enormous,  we  should 
naturally  expect  from  the  commentators  some  long  dis- 
sertation about  the  doctrines  of  justification  by  grace 
or  works.  But  nothing  of  the  sort  happens.  They 
fail  to  realise  the  import  of  the  difference,  and  pass  it 
over  with  a  few  slight  remarks  of  verbal  explanation. 
Perhaps  they  were  conscious  that  neither  reading  ought 
to  be  accepted  as  decisive,  each  of  them  being  in  need 
of  some  qualification  implied  in  the  other. 
/  It  will,  therefore,  suggest  itself  that  any  attempt  at 
an  orderly  and  complete  system  of  Rabbinic  theology 
is  an  impossible  task;  for  not  only  are  our  materials 
scanty  and  insufficient  for  such  a  purpose,  but,  when 
handling  those  fragments  which  have  come  down  to 
us,  we  must  always  be  careful  not  to  labour  them  too 
much,  or  to  ''fill  them  with  meaning"  which  their 
author  could  never  have  intended  them  to  bear, 
against  which  all  his  other  teachings  and  his  whole 
life  form  one  long,  emphatic  protest,  or  to  spin 
from  the  harmless  repetition  by  a  Rabbi  of  a  gnostic 
saying  or  some  Alexandrinic  theorem  the  impor- 
tance of  which  he  never  understood,  a  regular 
system  of  Rabbinic  theology.  All  that  these  frag- 
ments can  offer  us  are  some  aspects  of  the  theology 
of  the  Rabbis,  which  may  again  be  modified  by 
other  aspects,  giving  us  another  side  of  the  same  sub- 

Vitrif  pp.  514,  515.  Compare  also  Die  Responsen  des  R.  Meschullam 
ben  Kalonymos,  by  Dr.  Joel  Muller  (Berlin,  1893),  P*  ^i»  '^"^^^  ^9* 
See  below  p.  306. 


INTRODUCTORY  17 

ject.  What  we  can  obtain  resembles  rather  a  com- 
plicated arrangement  of  theological  checks  and  bal- 
ances than  anything  which  the  modern  divine  would 
deign  to  call  a  consistent  "scheme  of  salvation."  Still, 
I  am  inclined  to  think  that  a  religion  which  has  been 
in  "working  order"  for  so  many  centuries  —  which  con- 
tains so  little  of  what  we  call  theology,  and  the  little 
theology  of  which  possesses  so  few  fixities  (whilst  even 
these  partake  more  of  the  nature  of  experienced  reali- 
ties than  of  logically  demonstrated  dogmas)  —  that  this 
religion  forms  so  unique  and  interesting  a  phenomenon 
as  to  deserve  a  more  thorough  treatment  than  it  has 
hitherto  received.  It  is  not  to  be  dismissed  with  a  few 
general  phrases,  only  tending  to  prove  its  inferiority. 

This  brings  me  to  one  other  introductory  point  which 
I  wish  to  suggest  by  the  word  Aspects.  Aspects,  as  we 
know,  vary  with  the  attitude  we  take.  My  attitude  is 
a  Jewish  one.  This  does  not,  I  hope,  imply  either  an 
apology  for  the  Rabbis,  or  a  polemic  tendency  against 
their  antagonists.  Judaism  does  not  give  as  its  raison 
d'etre  the  shortcomings  of  any  of  the  other  great  creeds 
of  the  civilised  world.  Judaism,  even  Rabbinic  Judaism, 
was  there  before  either  Christianity  or  Mohammedan- 
ism was  called  into  existence.  It  need  not,  therefore, 
attack  them,  though  it  has  occasionally  been  com- 
pelled to  take  protective  measures  when  they  have 
threatened  it  with  destruction.  But  what  I  want  to 
indicate  and  even  to  emphasise  is,  that  my  attitude 
towards  Rabbinic  theology  is  necessarily  different  from 


i8       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

that  taken  by  most  commentators  on  the  Pauline 
Epistles.  I  speak  advisedly  of  the  commentators  on 
Paul;  for  the  Apostle  himself  I  do  not  profess  to  un- 
derstand. Harnack  makes  somewhere  the  remark  that 
in  the  first  two  centuries  of  Christianity  no  man  under- 
stood Paul  except  that  heathen-Christian  Marcion,  and 
he  misunderstood  him.  Layman  as  I  am,  it  would 
be  presumptuous  on  my  part  to  say  how  far  succeeding 
centuries  advanced  beyond  Marcion.  But  one  thing  is 
quite  clear  even  to  every  student,  and  this  is  that  a 
curious  alternative  is  always  haunting  our  exegesis  of 
the  Epistles.  Either  the  theology  of  the  Rabbis  must 
be  wrong,  its  conception  of  God  debasing,  its  leading 
motives  materialistic  and  coarse,  and  its  teachers  lack- 
ing in  enthusiasm  and  spirituality,  or  the  Apostle  to 
the  Gentiles  is  quite  unintelligible.  I  need  not  face 
this  alternative,  and  may  thus  be  able  to  arrive  at 
results  utterly  at  variance  with  those  to  be  found  in  our 
theological  manuals  and  introductions  to  the  New 
Testament. 

The  question  as  to  how  far  the  theology  of  the  Rabbis 
could  be  brought  into  harmony  with  the  theology  of  our 
I  age  is  a  matter  of  apologetics,  and  does  not  exactly  fall 
■^  within  the  province  of  these  essays.  With  a  little 
of  the  skill  so  often  displayed  by  the  writers  of  the 
life  and  times  of  ancient  heroes,  particularly  New 
Testament  heroes,  it  would  certainly  not  be  an  impos- 
sible task  to  draw  such  an  ideal  and  noble  picture  of 
any  of  the  great  Rabbis,  such  as  Hillel,  R.  Jochanan 


INTRODUCTORY  19 

ben  Sakkai,  or  R.  Akiba,  as  would  make  us  recognise 
a  nineteenth-century  altruist  in  them.  Nor  would  it 
require  much  ingenuity  to  parade,  for  instance,  R. 
Abuhah  as  an  accomplished  geologist,  inasmuch  as  he 
maintained  that  before  the  creation  of  our  world  God 
was  ever  constructing  and  destroying  worlds ;  ^  or  again, 
to  introduce  as  a  perfect  Hegelian  that  anonymous 
Rabbi  who  boldly  declared  that  it  was  Israel's  con- 
sciousness of  God  which  was  ''  the  making  of  God  " :  ^ 
or  finally,  to  arrogate  for  R.  Benaha  the  merit  of  hav- 
ing been  the  forerunner  of  Astruc,  because  he  declared 
that  the  Pentateuch  was  delivered  not  as  a  complete 
work,  but  in  a  series  of  successive  scrolls.^  Indeed, 
the  Rabbinic  literature  has  already  been  described  as 
a  "wonderful  mine  of  religious  ideas  from  which  it 
would  be  just  as  easy  to  draw  up  a  manual  for  the 
most  orthodox  as  to  extract  a  vade-mecum  for  the  most 
sceptical."  But  I  have  not  the  least  desire  to  array  the 
ancient  Rabbis  in  the  paraphernalia  of  modern  fashion, 
and  to  put  before  the  reader  a  mere  theological  masquer- 
ade, or  to  present  the  Talmud  as  a  rationalistic  pro- 
duction which  only  by  some  miracle  escaped  the 
vigilant  eye  of  the  authorities,  who  failed  to  recognise 
it  as  a  heretical  work  and  exclude  it  from  the  Syna- 
gogue. The  "liberty  of  interpretation,"  in  which  so 
many  theologians  indulge,  and  which  they  even  exalt 
as   ''Christian  freedom,"   seems  to  me  only  another 

^  See  Gen.  R,,  92.  2  gee  below,  p.  24,  note  2. 

3  See  Gittin,  16  a. 


20       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

word  for  the  privilege  to  blunder,  and  to  deceive  oneself 
and  others. 

To  show,  however,  that  Rabbinic  theology  is,  with 
the  least  modicum  of  interpretation  or  re-interpreta- 
tion, equal  to  the  highest  aspirations  of  the  religious 
man  of  various  modes  of  thought,  occasional  illustra- 
tions have  been  given  from  the  works  of  philosophers 
and  mystics,  thus  proving  the  latent  possibiUties  of 
its  application  by  various  schools  in  different  ages. 
As  to  ''  modernity,"  it  entirely  depends  whether  there 
is  still  room  in  its  programme  for  such  conceptions  as 
God,  Revelation,  Election,  Sin,  Retribution,  Holiness, 
and  similar  theological  ideas ;  or  is  it  at  present  merely 
juggling  with  words  to  drop  them  at  the  first  oppor- 
tunity ?  If  this  latter  be  the  case,  it  will  certainly  find 
no  ally  in  Rabbinic  theology,  or  for  that  matter,  in 
any  other  theology. 


n 

GOD   AND   THE   WORLD 

Among  the  many  strange  statements  by  which  the 
Jewish  student  is  struck,  when  reading  modern  divin- 
ity works,  there  is  none  more  puzzling  to  his  mind  than 
the  assertion  of  the  transcendentalism  of  the  Rabbinic 
God,  and  his  remoteness  from  man.  A  world  of  in- 
genuity is  spent  to  prove  that  the  absence  of  the  media- 
torial idea  in  Rabbinic  Theology  is  a  sign  not  of  its 
acceptance  of  man's  close  communion  with  God,  but 
of  its  failure  to  establish  the  missing  link  between 
heaven  and  earth.  Sayings  of  a  fantastic  nature,  as, 
for  instance,  when  a  Rabbi  speaks  of  God's  abode 
in  heaven,  with  its  various  partitions ;  ^  epithets  for 
God,  such  as  Heaven  or  Supreme,  which  antique  piety 
accepted  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  name  of 
God  "being  uttered  in  idleness";  terms  expressive  of 
his  providence  and  his  sublime  holiness,  as  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  the  King,  the  Lord  of  the  World, 

1  See  Weber,  System  der  Altsynagogalen  Palastinenischen  Theologie 
(Leipzig,  1880), pp.  158,  159.  SeeB.  Jacob,  "  Ln  Nafnen  Goites,'^  p.  171. 
It  is  interesting  that  in  the  very  passage  in  Chagigah^  5  b,  where  this 
sharp  division  between  the  inner  and  outer  departments  is  given,  it  is 
also  stated  that  in  the  latter  God  is  mourning  over  the  misfortunes  of 
Israel. 


22        SOME  ASPECTS   OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

or  the  Master  of  all  Creation;  Hellenistic  phrases, 
which  crept  into  Jewish  literature,  but  which  never 
received,  in  the  mouth  of  a  Rabbi,  the  significance 
which  they  had  with  an  Alexandrine  philosopher,  or 
a  Father  of  the  Church, — are  all  brought  forward  to 
give  evidence  of  the  great  distance  which  the  Rabbinic 
Jew  must  have  felt,  and  must  feel,  between  himself  and 
his  God. 

How  strange  all  this  to  the  Jewish  student !  Does  the 
Jewish  Prayer  Book  contain  such  passages  as  —  "  O  our 
Father,  merciful  Father,  ever  compassionate,  have  mercy 
upon  us.  .  .  .  Thou  hast  chosen  us  from  all  peoples 
and  tongues,  and  hast  brought  us  near  unto  thy  great 
name  forever  in  faithfulness,  to  thank  thee  and  pro- 
claim thy  Unity  in  love ;  blessed  art  thou,  O  God,  who 
hast  chosen  thy  people  Israel,  in  love":^  or  are  they 
Christian  interpolations  from  some  unknown  hand? 
Is  the  Jew  taught  to  confess  his  sins  daily  in  the  follow- 
ing words:  ''Forgive  us,  our  Father,  for  we  have 
sinned ;  pardon  us,  our  King,  for  we  have  transgressed 
.  .  .  blessed  art  thou,  our  God,  who  art  gracious  and 
dost  abundantly  forgive"  :^  or  is  this  formula  borrowed 
from  a  non- Jewish  liturgy  ?  Has  the  Jew  ever  heard  his 
mother  at  the  bedside  of  a  sick  relative,  directing 
prayers  to  God,  and  appealing  to  him  as  "  the  beloved 
name,  the  gracious  helper,  the  merciful  Father,  and 

1  See  Daily  Prayer  Book,  edited  and  translated  by  the  late  Rev.  S. 
Singer  (1890),  p.  40;   Baer,  bxniy^  n-lini;,  Rodelheim,  1868,  p.  80. 

2  See  Singer,  p.  46;  Baer,  p.  90. 


/ 

GOD   AND   THE  WORLD  23 

the  dear  God" :  or  was  it  some  Christian  neighbour  to 
whom  he  was  listening?  Are  the  millions  of  worship- 
pers in  the  synagogue  addressing  themselves  directly 
to  God,  the  king  and  creator  of  the  universe,  the  Father 
in  Heaven ;  or  do  they,  in  their  thoughts,  substitute  for 
all  these  terms  the  Memra  or  the  Logos,  or  some  other 
abstraction,  of  which  the  writer  of  those  prayers  was 
unaware  ?  For,  according  to  what  we  are  told  by  many 
theologians,  God  is  too  far  off,  the  King  of  the  Uni- 
verse too  cosmopolitan,  and  the  Father  in  heaven  too 
high  for  the  mind  of  the  Jew,  and  is  thus  an  impossible 
object  for  worship.  These  are  questions  which  readily 
suggest  themselves  when  one,  for  instance,  reads 
Weber's  book,  System  der  AUsynagogalen  Palastinen- 
sischen  Theologie,  which  has  within  the  last  decades 
become  the  chief  source  of  information  for  the  great 
majority  of  the  writers  on  this  subject.  The  thesis 
which  Weber  sets  himself  to  prove  through  all  his  work 
is  evidently  that  of  the  predominance  of  the  legalistic 
element  in  Jewish  theology,  which  was  so  overwhelming 
that  it  crushed  even  God  under  its  oppressive  burden, 
or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  removed  him  out  of  the 
world.  Hence  the  strange  arrangements  of  subjects  in 
Weber's  work,  treating  first  of  nomism  (or  legalism), 
then  of  the  character  of  the  oral  law,  the  authority  of 
the  Rabbis,  etc.,  and  last  of  all,  of  the  Jewish  notion 
of  God.  The  general  impression  conveyed  by  such  a 
representation  is  that  this  Jewish  God  is  not  the  God 
from  whom  the  Torah  has  emanated,  and  on  whom 


24        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

its  authority  rests,  but  that  he  is  himself  a  feeble  reflex 
of  the  law,  improved  occasionally  by  some  prophetic 
notions,  but  jealously  watched  by  the  Rabbis  lest  he 
should  come  into  too  close  contact  with  humanity. 

This  is  very  different  from  the  impression  which 
the  Jewish  student  receives  from  a  direct  study  of  the 
sources.  Quite  the  reverse !  The  student  is  over- 
whelmed by  the  conviction  that  the  manifestation  of 
God  in  Israel's  history  was  still  as  vivid  to  the  mind  of 
the  Rabbis  and  still  as  present  as  it  was  to  the  writer 
of  Deuteronomy  or  the  author  of  Psalm  78.  "All 
souls,"  say  the  Rabbis,  "even  those  which  had  still  to 
be  created,  were  present  at  the  Revelation  on  Mount 
Sinai."  ^  The  freshness  with  which  the  Biblical  stories 
are  retold  in  the  Agadic  literature,  the  vivid  way  in 
which  they  are  applied  to  the  oppressed  condition  of 
Israel,  the  future  hopes  which  are  based  on  them, 
create  the  impression  that  to  the  Rabbis  and  their 
followers  the  Revelation  at  Sinai  and  all  that  it  implies 
was  to  them  not  a  mere  reminiscence  or  tradition,  but 
that,  through  their  intense  faith,  they  re-witnessed 
it  in  their  own  souls,  so  that  it  became  to  them 
a  personal  experience.  Indeed,  it  is  this  witnessing, 
or  rather  re-witnessing,  to  revelation  by  which  God  is 
God;  without  it  he  could  not  be  God.^    People  who 

1  Exod.  R.,  28  6. 

2  See  P.  K.,  102  b,  and  Sifre,  144  a,  with  allusion  to  Is.  43  12.  Cf. 
also  Hoffmann's  Midrasch  Tannaim,  i  72,  for  more  striking  instances. 
The  expression  b'13''S3  (as  if  it  were  possible  to  say  so)  is  used  in  Sifre. 


GOD   AND    THE  WORLD  25 

would  doubt  his  existence  and  say,  "There  is  no  judge- 
ment and  no  judge,"  belong  rather  to  the  generation 
of  the  deluge,  before  God  had  entered  so  openly  into 
relations  with  mankind/  To  those  who  have  experi- 
enced him  through  so  many  stages  in  their  history,  such 
doubt  was  simply  impossible. 

A  God,  however,  who  is  mainly  reached,  not  by  meta- 
physical deductions,  but,  as  was  the  case  with  the 
Rabbis,  through  the  personal  experience  of  his  revela- 
tion and  his  continuous  operations  in  the  world,  can- 
not possibly  be  removed  from  it,  or  be  otherwise  con- 
fined to  any  particular  region.  Such  a  locally  limited 
conception  of  the  deity  could,  according  to  the  Rabbis, 
only  be  entertained  by  a  newly  fledged  proselyte,  who 
had  not  as  yet  emancipated  himself  from  his  poly- 
theistic notions.  To  the  Jew,  God  was  at  one  and  the  ^ 
same  time  above,  beyond,  and  within  the  world,  its  soul 
and  its  life.  '' Jethro,"  say  the  Rabbis,  "still  believing  ^ 
that  there  was  some  substance  in  other  gods,  said,  'I 
know  that  the  Lord  is  greater  than  all  the  gods '  (Exod. 
1511).  Naaman  came  nearer  the  truth  (though  still 
confining  God  to  one  part  of  the  universe),  for  he  said, 

Cf.  Bacher,  Terfninologie,  i  78,  for  the  etymology  and  a  more  precise 
explanation  of  this  term.  It  may  be  remarked  that  in  most  cases 
this  term  blS'ZD  is  used  by  the  Rabbis,  when  the  anthropomorphism 
which  they  imply  is  carried  further  than  that  implied  by  the  Bible. 
The  instance  which  I  have  just  cited  from  the  Pesikta  is  a  case  in 
point.  Cf.  also  the  numerous  instances  given  by  Kohut  in  his  Aruch 
Completum,  s.v.  73^  2_ 

1  See  Gen.  R.,  26  6  and  Pseudo- Jonathan,  Gen.  4  8. 


26       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

'  Now  I  know  that  there  is  no  other  God  in  all  the  earth, 
but  in  Israel'  (2  Kings  5  15).  Rahab  (made  even  further 
progress,  and)  placed  God  both  in  heaven  and  earth, 
saying,  'For  the  Lord  your  God,  he  is  God  in  heaven 
above  and  in  earth  beneath'  (Josh.  2  11);  but  Moses 
made  him  fill  all  the  space  of  the  world  (or  universe), 
as  it  is  said,  'The  Lord  he  is  God  in  the  heaven 
above,  and  upon  the  earth  beneath':  there  is  none 
else  (Deut.  4  39),  which  means  that  even  the  empty 
space  is  full  of  God."  ^ 

He  is  indeed  to  the  Rabbis,  as  may  be  gathered  from 
the  various  appellatives  for  God  scattered  over  the 
Rabbinic  literature,  not  only  the  Creator  of  the  world, 
or  "he  who  spake  and  the  world  existed,"^  but  also 
the  Father  of  the  world, ^  the  goodness  (or  the  good 
one)  of  the  world,*  the  light  of  the  world  ^  the  life 
of  the  world,®  the  stay  of  the  world  ^  the  eye  of  the 
world, ^  the  only  one  of  the  world, ^  the  ancient  one 
of  the  world, ^°  the  righteous  one  of  the  world,"  the 
master  or  the  lord  of  the  world, ^^  and  the  space  (makom) 

1  Deu^.  R.,  2  27.  cf.  Mechilta,  59  a.     Cf.   Tan.  B.,  4  15  a  ;   M.  T., 
19  3,  22  2,  62  3;   cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Atn.y  i  182. 

"^  Jer.  Pesachim,  18  b.    Cf.  Low,  Gessammelie  Sckriften,  1 185,  note  3. 
3  Midrash  Prov.,  ch.  10.  *  P.  K.,  161  a. 

6  Tan.  ^.,  4  24  (5.  6  Tan.,  Strn  "'S,  24. 

7  Tan.  B.y  50  b.  8  Qg^^  ^.^  42  2. 
9  Gm.  P.,  21  5. 

1*^  Yalkuno  Chronicles,  section  1074,  but  the  reading  is  rather  doubt- 
ful.    Cf.  Ruth  R.,  2\,  and  commentaries. 

11  Yoma,  37  a.     Cf.  Yalkut  to  Prov.  §  346. 

12  Berachoth,  4  a. 


GOD   AND    THE  WORLD  27 

of  the  world.*  In  another  place  God  is  compared  by 
a  Rabbi  to  the  soul  "filling  the  whole  world,  as  the  soul 
fills  the  body,"^  a  comparison  which  may  probably 
have  suggested  to  later  Jewish  writers  semi-pantheistic 
notions;  as,  for  instance,  when  the  author  of  the  Song 
of  the  Unity  says:  "There  is  nothing  but  thy  exist- 
ence.    Thou  art  alive,   omnipotent,  and  none  is  be- 


1  Gen.  R.,  689  and  P.  R.  104  «,  and  notes.  Cf.  E.  Landau's  essay 
Die  def?i  Raume  entnommenen  Synotiyma  filr  Gott  in  der  Neiihebr'di- 
schen  Liter atur  (Zurich,  1888),  pp.  30  seq.,  where  the  whole  Hterature 
on  the  subject  is  put  together:  to  which  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  i  207, 
and  Jacob,  Im  Namen  Gottes,  119  may  be  added.  According  to  the 
passage  from  the  Mechilta,  52  ^,  given  there  by  Bacher,  T07  jK3to, 
DIpD  "'THp  SinU  h'T\1T\  it  is  the  divine  court  of  judgement  which  is 
called  Diptt.  Cf.  Mechilta  of  R.  Simon,  ed.  Hoffmann,  81.  See  also 
Lewy,  Ein  Wort  Uber  die  Mechilta  des  R.  Simon,  p.  9,  note  4.  See 
also  Midrash  Temnrah,  §  2.  I  believe,  however,  that  in  spite  of  all 
these  authorities,  that  the  older  commentators  of  the  Mechilta,  ex- 
plaining the  passage  to  refer  to  the  court  or  the  Sanhedrin,  were  in 
the  right,  the  reading  of  ."TO  in  the  MHG  probably  resting  on  some 
clerical  error.  The  term  is  mainly  indicative  of  God's  ubiquity  in  the 
world  and  can  best  be  translated  by  "Omnipresent."  Cf.  Taylor's 
Sayings  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,  p.  53,  note  42,  though  it  is  difficult 
to  say  with  any  certainty  whether  it  is  Jewish  or  Helenistic  in  its 
origin.  On  Landau's  note  i,  p.  40,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  text  of 
Gemara  in  the  Mishnah  Berachoth,  5  1,  has  D''X2tl'nt2?  DiTiXT'  instead 
of  Uypn.  Cf.  Mishnah,  Rosh  Hashana,  4  8,  D.Tnxb  Dnb  nK  D^nnrtT^I 
D^DU'Sti',  where  Mr.  Lowe's  ed.,  p.  62  a,  reads  D''313^1  instead  of 
D"'nSUtrX2l.  Bishop  Lightfoot's  quotation  (in  his  Commentary  to  the 
Colossians,  p.  213)  from  ''^nS  on  the  Pentateuch  (to  Exod.  34  20), 
according  to  which  God  is  also  called  D7117  7^  mSD,  the  "  first-born 
of  the  world,"  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  older  Rabbinic  literature,  and 
seems  to  be  only  a  later  cabalistic  term. 

2  See  Lev.  ^.,48. 


28        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

sides    thee.     And   before  the  All  thou  wast   the  All, 
and  when  the  All  became  thou  filledst  the  All."  ^ 

It  is  true  that  there  are  also  other  appellatives  for 
God,  placing  him  "above  the  world,"  as  the  heaven,^ 
the  height  of  the  world,^  and  the  high  one.^  Nor  is  it 
to  be  denied  that  there  is  a  whole  circle  of  legends 
mostly  concentrated  round  the  visions  of  Ezekiel,  which 
give  mystical  descriptions  of  God's  heavenly  habita- 
tions. Here  is  an  instance  of  the  economy  of  the 
seventh  heaven  which  is  Araboth.  It  is  with  reference 
to  Ps.  68  4 :  " '  Sing  unto  God,  sing  praises  to  his 
name:  extol  him  that  rideth  upon  the  Araboth  (the 
heavens).'  Araboth  is  the  heaven,  in  which  are  right- 
eousness and  grace,  the  treasures  of  life,  the  treasures 
of  peace  and  the  treasures  of  bliss,  and  the  souls  of 
the  righteous,  and  the  souls  and  the  spirits  which  are 
about  to  be  created,  and  the  dew  with  which  the  holy 
one,  blessed  be  he,  is  to  revive  the  dead  .  .  .  and  there 
are  the  Ophanim,  the  Seraphim,  and  the  holy  Chayoth 
and  the  ministering  angels  and  the  throne  of  glory, 
and  the  king,  the  living  God,  high  and  exalted,  rests 
above  them,  as  it  is  said:  'Extol  ye  him  that  rideth 
upon  the  Araboth.' "  ^      This  passage,  and  a  few  others 

1  '^^^^'^  ^^tr,  3d  day. 

2  See  Rab,  Dictionaries,  sub.  D^ttti'.      See  also  Schiirer  2  :  539. 

3  Tan.y  Kirn  ^D,  27. 

*  See  Baba  Bathra,  134  a,  and  Rab.  Dictionaries  sub.  mnjl.  Cf.  also 
Landau  and  Low,  about  all  these  expressions. 

5  See  Chagigah,  12  d,  i;^  a;  and  B.  R.,  95  b  seq.  Cf.  Ginzberg,  Die 
Haggada  bei  den  Kirchenvdiern,  p.  11. 


GOD   AND   THE  WORLD  29 

of  a  similar  character,  dating  perhaps  from  the  first 
century,  are  developed  later  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries  into  an  extensive  mystical  literature  known 
under  the  name  of  Chapters  of  the  Chambers,^  which 
enlarge  upon  the  topography  of  the  heavens  with 
great  minuteness,  besides  giving  very  detailed  descrip- 
tions of  the  various  divisions  of  the  ministering  angels 
who  dwell  there,  and  their  various  functions,  and  pro- 
ducing even  some  of  the  hymns  which  are  sung  in 
heaven  on  particular  occasions. 

But  first  we  must  note  that  the  fact  of  God's  abiding  -' 
in  a  heaven  ever  so  high  does  not  prevent  him  from 
being  at  the  same  time  also  on  earth.  "Thou  art  the 
Lord  our  God,"  runs  the  text  of  a  prayer,  which  is  still 
recited  every  day,  "  in  heaven  and  on  earth,  and  in  the 
highest  heavens  of  heavens"  ;^  whilst  the  fact  of  God's 
appearing  to  Moses  in  the  bush  is  taken  as  a  proof  that 
there  is  no  spot  on  earth  be  it  ever  so  lowly  which 
is  devoid  of  the  divine  presence.^  When  a  Rabbi  was 
asked  as  to  the  seeming  contradiction  between  Exod. 
40  34,  according  to  which  the  glory  of  God  filled  the 
tabernacle,  and  i  Kings  8  27,  in  which  it  is  said :  "Be- 
hold, the  heaven  and  heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain 
thee,"  he  answered,  that  the  matter  is  to  be  compared 
to  a  cave  by  the  shore  of  the  sea ;  once  the  sea  became 
stormy  and  inundated  the  land,  when  the  cave  filled 

1  m^^yn  ■'p'^B  existing  in  various  versions,  strongly  reminding  of 
the  Book  of  Enoch  and  similar  other  Pseudoepigrapha. 

2  See  S.  j5.,  p.  118,  and  Introduction,  p.  80.  ^  />.  ^.^  2  b. 


30        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

with  water,  whilst  the  sea  lost  nothing  of  its  contents ;  so 
the  tabernacle  became  full  of  the  glory  of  the  divine 
presence,  whilst  neither  heaven  nor  earth  became 
empty  of  it/ 

Secondly,  and  this  is  a  point  which  cannot  be  sufh- 
ciently  emphasised,  that  whatever  mythologies  and 
theosophies  may  be  derived  from  the  notion  of  heaven 
or  height,  on  the  one  hand,  or  whatever  pantheistic 
theories  may  be  developed  from  the  conception  of  the 
God-fulness  of  the  universe,  on  the  other  hand,  neither 
of  these  opposing  tendencies  were  allowed  to  influence 
the  theology  of  the  Rabbis  in  any  considerable  degree. 

Theirs  was  a  personal  God,  and  a  personal  God 
will  always  be  accommodated  by  fancy  and  imagina- 
tion with  some  sort  of  local  habitation.  The  "Not- 
Ourselves"  will  always  have  to  be  placed  somewhere 
else.  Loftiness  and  height  have  always  and  will  al- 
ways suggest  sublimity  and  exaltation,  and  thus  they 
could  not  choose  a  more  suitable  habitation  for  the 
deity  than  the  heavens,  or  the  heaven  of  heavens. 
But  theology  proper,  or  religion,  is  not  entirely  made 
up  of  these  elements.  It  does  not  suppress  them, 
but  with  happy  inconsistency,  it  does  not  choose  to 
abide  by  their  logical  consequences. 

Thus  the  very  R.  Simon  b.  Lakish,  to  whom  we  owe 
the  Rabbinic  version  of  the  myth  of  the  seven  heavens, 
in  the  highest  of  which,  as  we  have  seen,  the  throne  of 
glory  is  placed,  declared  the  patriarchs  (as  models  of 

'^  P,K,2b',  F.J^. ,  ig  a.     Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  2  27. 


GOD  AND   THE  WORLD  31 

righteousness)  to  be  the  throne  (or  the  chariot)  of  God ; 
whilst  his  colleague  and  older  contemporary,  R.  Jo- 
chanan,  laid  down  the  axiom,  that  every  place  where 
"thou  findest  the  greatness  of  God  mentioned,  there 
thou  findest  also  his  humility";  and  he  further  added 
illustrations  from  the  Pentateuch,  the  Prophets,  and 
the  Hagiographa.  The  illustration  from  the  latter  is 
the  very  verse  which  partly  suggested  the  legend  of  the 
seven  heavens,  namely  the  verse,  ''Extol  ye  him  who 
rideth  upon  the  Araboth" ;  being  followed  by  the  words, 
"A  father  of  the  fatherless,  and  a  judge  of  the  widows, 
is  God  in  his  holy  habitation"  (Psalm  78  5).  Thus 
we  may  maintain  safely  that  with  the  Rabbis  distance 
does  not  imply  aloofness  or  any  interruption  of  God's 
communion  with  man.  Notwithstanding  all  distance, 
"  God  is  near  in  every  kind  of  nearness."  ^  For  though 
the  distance  between  heaven  and  earth  is  so  infinitely 
great,  yet  "when  a  man  comes  to  the  synagogue  and 
prays,  God  listens  to  him,  for  the  petitioner  is  like  a 
man  who  talks  into  the  ear  of  his  friend."  ^  The  same 
is  the  case  with  repentance,  "the  power  of  which  is  very 
great."  Directly  a  man  has  a  thought  of  repentance, 
it  instantly  reaches  the  throne  of  God.^ 

Something  similar  may  be  remarked  of  the  concep- 
tion of  God's  Kingship,  forming,  as  we  shall  see  in 
the  sequence,  an  important  feature  of  the  theology  of 
the  Rabbis  which  undoubtedly  contributed  in  some 

'^/er.  Berachoth,  13  a.  "i  Jer.  Berachoth,  ibid. 

3  P.  R.,  185  a.    See  also  below,  p.  335. 


32 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 


measure  towards  confining  God  to  a  locale,  the  eleva- 
tion of  which  would  not  only  suggest  exaltation,  but 
also  convey  to  our  mind  a  sense  of  security  against 
all  intrusion,  so  as  to  keep  those  below  at  a  respectful 
distance.  Yet  this  distance  does  not  cause  either  remote- 
ness and  separation.  These  are  only  brought  about 
by  the  evil  actions  of  man.  This  we  gather  from  such 
a  passage  as  the  following:  It  is  with  allusion  to 
Ps.  1 8  12,  "He  made  darkness  his  hiding-place,  his 
pavilion  round  him."  ''  This  verse,"  it  is  explained, 
"  David  only  said  in  the  praise  of  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  he  who  is  H^,  ruling  in  the  height  .  .  . 
and  he  dwells  in  three  hundred  and  ninety  heavens 
.  .  .  and  in  each  of  them  there  are  ministering 
angels  and  Seraphim  and  Ophanim  and  Cherubim 
and  Galgalim  and  a  Throne  of  Glory.  But  thou 
must  not  wonder  at  this  thing ;  for  behold,  the  King 
of  flesh  and  blood  has  many  habitations,  both  for 
the  warm  and  the  cold  (seasons),  much  more  so 
the  King  who  lives  for  eternity,  to  whom  all  be- 
longs." But  the  author  of  this  mystical  passage 
winds  up  with  the  words,  "When  Israel  performs  the 
will  of  the  Omnipresent,  he  dwells  in  the  Araboth  (the 
seventh  heaven)  and  removeth  not  from  his  (world) 
in  any  way,  but  in  the  time  of  wrath  he  ascends  on 
high  and  sits  in  the  upper  heavens.* 

1  See  D.  E.  ch.  2.  Cf.  Friedmann  Q'nSDD  lo,  note  2,  for  parallels 
and  the  history  of  this  passage.  The  word  in  brackets  is  given  after  an 
emendation  of  R.  Elijah  of  Wilna.     A  good  collection  of  comparisons 


GOD   AND   THE  WORLD 


zz 


The  fact  is,  that  the  nearness  of  God  is  determined 
by  the  conduct  of  man,  and  by  his  realisation  of  this 
nearness,  that  is,  by  his  knowledge  of  God.  "Thus 
taught  the  sages.  Thy  deeds  will  bring  thee  near  (to 
God),  and  thy  deeds  will  remove  thee  (from  God).  How 
so  ?  If  a  man  does  ugly  things  his  actions  remove  him 
from  the  divine  presence,  as  it  is  said,  '  Your  sins  have 
separated  between  you  and  your  God  '  (Isa.  69  2).  But 
if  a  man  has  done  good  deeds,  they  bring  him  near  to 
the  divine  presence.  .  .  .  And  it  is  upon  man  to 
know  that  a  contrite  and  humble  spirit  is  better  than 
all  the  sacrifices  (prescribed)  in  the  Torah."  ^  It  is 
in  conformity  with  this  conception  of  the  nearness  of  God 
that  we  read,  "Before  Abraham  made  God  known  to 
his  creatures,  he  was  only  the  God  of  the  heaven; 
but  afterwards  he  became  (through  Abraham's  prosely- 
tising activity)  also  the  God  of  the  earth."  ^  Hence 
the  patriarchs  are,  as  just  quoted,  the  very  throne  of 
God,^  whilst  those,  for  instance,  who  speak  untruth,  are 
banished  from  his  holy  presence.^  Indeed,  "his  main 
dwelling  is  among  those  below,"  and  it  is  only  sin  and 
crime  which  cause  God's  removal  to  the  upper  regions. 

between  God  and  the  King  of  flesh  and  blood,  entering  into  such 
details  as  his  throne,  his  palace,  his  legions,  his  court,  his  administer- 
ing justice,  etc.,  is  to  be  found  in  Die  Kbnigsgleichnisse  des  Midrasch, 
by  Dr.  I.  Ziegler  (Breslau,  1903).  See  especially  the  Hebrew  sec- 
tion of  this  book. 

1  S.  E.,  p.  104.  Cf.  also  the  reading  in  the  old  editions  of  K"S*in, 
ch.  18. 

2  Gen.  R.,  59  8.  3  Gen,  R.,  47  6.     See  below,  p.  84. 
*  Sanhedrin,  102  b.     P.  K.  I  a.     Cf.  below,  p.  223. 


34       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

That  such  appellatives  as  space,  or  master  of  the 
world,  are  not  meant  to  imply  severance  or  remote- 
ness, may  be  seen  from  the  following  instances :  "Be- 
loved are  Israel,  for  they  are  called  children  of  Space" 
(makom),  as  it  is  said:  "Ye  are  children  unto  the 
Lord  your  God."  ^  "He  who  helps  Israel,  is  as  if 
he  would  help  space"  (God).^  "Israel  (on  the  waters 
of  Marah)  was  supplicating  and  praying  to  their  Father 
in  Heaven,  as  a  son  who  implores  his  father,  and  a 
disciple  who  beseeches  his  master,  saying  unto  him: 
Master  of  the  world,  we  have  sinned  against  thee, 
when  we  murmured  on  the  sea."  ^  Even  the  term 
strength,  by  which  God  is  sometimes  called,^  occurs  in 
such  connections  as:  "When  Israel  does  the  will  of 
God,  power  is  added  to  strength."  ^  In  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud  one  of  the  most  frequent  appellations 
of  God  is  "the  merciful  one,"  and  it  is  worth  noticing, 
that  this  term  is  mostly  used  in  Halachic  or  casuistic 
discussions,  which  proves,  by  the  way,  how  little  in  the 
mind  of  the  Rabbis  the  Law  was  connected  with  hard- 
ness and  chastisement.  To  them  it  was  an  effluence 
of  God's  mercy  and  goodness.® 

1  Ado^/i,  3  18.  2  See  Si/rg,  22  5. 

8  Mechilta,  45  b.     See  Aruch,  s.v.  ^13.     See  below,  p.  336. 

4  Mechilta,  48  b.     Shabbath,  87  b. 

5  See  P.  K.,  166  a  and  b.     Cf.  Kohut's  Aruch,  s.v.  ^KJ.     See  below, 

p.  239- 

6  See  references  of  Kohut's  Aruch,  s.v.  DlTn.  In  Tractate  Pesachim 
alone  it  occurs  about  forty-one  times,  but  always  in  Halachic  contro- 
versies. 


GOD   AND   THE  WORLD  35 

Eager,  however,  as  the  Rabbis  were  to  establish  this 
communion  between  God  and  the  world,  they  were 
always  on  their  guard  not  to  permit  him  to  be  lost  in 
the  world,  or  to  be  confused  with  man.  Hence  the 
marked  tendency,  both  in  the  Targumim  and  in  the 
Agadah,  to  explain  away  or  to  mitigate  certain  ex- 
pressions in  the  Bible,  investing  the  deity  with  corporeal 
qualities.  The  terms  Shechinah  and  Memra  in  the 
former  are  well  known,  and  have  been  treated  of  by 
various  scholars.^  As  to  the  Agadah,  we  find  the  gen- 
eral rule  applied  to  the  Bible,  that  the  Scriptures  only 
intended  "to  make  the  ear  listen  to  what  it  can  hear"; 
or  as  it  is  elsewhere  expressed,  "  to  soothe  the  ear  (so 
as  to  make  it  listen  to)  what  it  can  hear,"  which  might 
be  taken  as  implying  a  tendency  towards  mitigating 
corporeal  terms.^  This  tendency  may  also  be  detected 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  Rabbis  given  in  God's 
answer  to  Moses'  question,  "  What  is  His  name " 
(Exod.  3  13).  "  The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said 
to  Moses,  Thou  wantest  to  know  my  name?  I  am 
called  according  to  my  deeds.  When  I  judge  the 
creatures  I  am  named  Elohim,  when  I  wage  war 
against  the  wicked  I  am  named  Zebaoth,  when  I  sus- 
pend (the  punishment  of)  the  man's  sins,  I  am  named 

1  See  Schiirer,  i  147,  note  38,  about  the  literature  on  this  point. 
The  term  ny2li''  is  very  frequent  in  the  Talmud  and  ATidrashim  ;  see 
Kohut's  Aruch,  s.v.  j3ti^.  Less  frequent  is  "1121.  Cf.  Landau  (as 
above),  pp.  47  seq.  and  p.  53  ;   Bacher,  Terminologie  2  36, 

'^  A.R.N.,i,z.  2,  miD  n"'?,  §  14.  See  Reifmann,  nsn  S^tt^tt, p.  31  j 
Bacher,  Terminologie,  i  3. 


36        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

El  Shadai,  and  when  I  have  mercy  with  my  world,  I 
am  named  by  the  tetragrammaton.^^  ^  The  words, 
*'The  Lord  is  a  man  of  war"  (Exod.  15  3),  are  con- 
trasted with  (Hos.  II  9)  "For  I  am  God,  and  not 
man,"  and  explained  to  mean  that  it  is  only  for  the 
love  of  Israel  that  God  appears  in  such  a  capacity.^  In 
another  passage  we  read  that  the  divine  presence  never 
came  down,  and  Moses  never  went  up  to  heaven,  as 
it  is  said,  "The  heavens  are  the  Lord's,  and  the  earth 
hath  he  given  to  the  children  of  men."  ^ 

This  last  passage  is  not  only  in  contradiction  with 
some  of  the  quotations  given  in  the  foregoing  pages, 
but  is  also  directly  opposed  to  another  Agadic  inter- 
pretation of  this  very  verse  from  the  Psalms,  according 
to  which  the  line  drawn  between  heaven  and  earth  was 
removed  by  the  Revelation,  when  God  came  down 
on  Mount  Sinai  (Exod.  19  19),  and  Moses  was  com- 
manded to  come  up  unto  the  Lord  (ibid.  24  1).^  This 
objection  of  the  Rabbis  —  though  only  feebly  expressed 
— to  take  the  scriptural  language  in  its  literal  sense  must 
be  attributed  to  a  polemic  tendency  against  rising  secta- 
rianism, which,  laying  too  much  stress  on  the  corporeal 
terms  in  the  Bible,  did  not  rest  satisfied  with  humanis- 
ing the  Deity,  but  even  insisted  on  deifying  man.  To 
the  former,  that  is,  the  humanising  of  the  Deity  and 

1  See  Exod.  R.  3  6. 

2  Mechilta,  38  b.     See  also  below,  p.  44,  note  I. 

3  Sukkah,  5  a.     See  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.^  I  185. 
*  Exod.  R.,  12  8. 


GOD   AND   THE  WORLD  37 

endowing  him  with  all  the  qualities  and  attributes  which 
tend  towards  making  God  accessible  to  man,  the  Rab- 
bis could  not  possibly  object.  A  great  number  of 
scriptural  passages,  when  considered  in  the  light  of 
Rabbinic  interpretation,  represent  nothing  else  but  a 
record  of  a  sort  of  Imitatio  hominis  on  the  part  of  God. 
He  acts  as  best  man  at  the  wedding  of  Adam  and 
Eve;^  he  mourns  over  the  world  like  a  father  over 
the  death  of  his  son  when  the  sins  of  ten  generations 
make  its  destruction  by  the  deluge  imminent ;  ^  he  visits 
Abraham  on  his  sick-bed ;  ^  he  condoles  with  Isaac  after 
the  death  of  Abraham;^  he  "himself  in  his  glory"  is 
occupied  in  doing  the  last  honours  to  Moses,  who 
would  otherwise  have  remained  unburied,  as  no  man 
knew  his  grave ;  ^  he  teaches  Torah  to  Israel,  and  to 
this  very  day  he  keeps  school  in  heaven  for  those  who 
died  in  their  infancy;^  he  prays  himself,  and  teaches 
Israel  how  to  pray ; "  he  argues  with  Abraham  the 
case  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  not  only  on  equal 
terms,  but  tells  him.  If  thou  thinkest  I  acted  unworth- 
ily, teach  me  and  I  will  do  so.^  Like  man  he  also  feels, 
so  to  speak,  embarrassed  in  the  presence  of  the  conceited 
and  overbearing,  and  says,  I  and  the  proud  cannot 
dwell  in  the  same  place. ^     Nay,  it  would  seem  that  the 

1  Gen.  R.,  8  8 13.     Cf.  Commentaries  and  ibid.  181. 

2  See  Gen.  R.,  27  4.  ^  ^^„,  ^^^  g  is.  *  Gen.  R.,  ibid. 

5  See  Gen.  R.,  ibid.,  and  Soia,  9  b. 

6  Exod.  R.y  28  5,  and  Abodah  Zarah,  3  b. 

''  See  Berachoth,  7  a,  and  Rosh  Hashanah,  I'j  b. 

8  See  Tan.  B.,  i  46  a.  9  Soiah,  5  b. 


38       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Rabbis  felt  an  actual  delight  in  heaping  human  qual- 
ities upon  God  whenever  opportunity  is  offered  by 
Scripture.  Thus  with  reference  to  (Exod.  15  1)  "I 
will  sing  unto  the  Lord,"  the  Rabbis  say,  "I  will 
praise  him,"  that  he  is  terrible,  as  it  is  said,  "A  great 
God,  a  mighty  and  a  terrible"  (Deut.  10  17).  "I  will 
praise  him,"  that  he  is  wealthy,  as  it  is  said,  "The 
earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fulness  thereof"  (Ps.  24 
1).  "I  will  praise  him,"  that  he  is  wise,  as  it  is  said, 
"For  the  Lord  giveth  wisdom:  out  of  his  mouth 
cometh  knowledge  and  understanding"  (Prov.  2  e). 
"I  will  praise  him,"  that  he  is  merciful,  as  it  is  said, 
"The  Lord,  the  Lord  God,  is  merciful  and  gracious" 
(Exod.  34  6).  "I  will  praise  him,"  that  he  is  a 
judge,  as  it  is  said,  "For  the  judgment  is  God's" 
(Deut.  I  17).  "I  will  praise  him,"  that  he  is  faithful, 
as  it  is  said,  "Know  therefore  that  the  Lord  thy  God, 
he  is  God,  the  faithful  God"  {ihid.  7  9).^ 
*  What  the  Rabbis  strongly  objected  to  was  the  deifi- 
cation of  man.  Thus  with  reference  to  Exod.  6  and 
7  1,  God  is  represented  by  the  Rabbis  as  having  said 
to  Moses,  "Though  I  made  thee  a  god  to  Pharaoh, 
thou  must  not  become  overbearing  (and  think  thyself 
God) ;  /  am  the  Lord."  ^  To  Hiram,  the  Prince  of 
Tyre,  who  said,  "I  am  God;  I   sit    in   the   seat   of 

1  Mechilta,  35  a.  Cf.  MHG.,  677  seq.^  about  the  seventy  names  of 
God,  and  note  12  to  col.  681.  Cf,  also  Saalfeld,  Das  Hohelied  Salomons^ 
0.137. 

2  Tan.B.,  2,  13  a. 


GOD   AND   THE  WORLD  39 

God"  (Ezek.  28  2),  God  is  supposed  by  the  Rabbis  to 
have  answered,  "Did  Elijah,  notwithstanding  his 
reviving  the  dead,  bringing  rain,  and  making  the  fire 
to  come  down  from  heaven,  ever  make  the  claim  to  be 
a  God?"  ^  Both  Pharaoh  and  the  Prince  of  Tyre  are, 
of  course,  only  prototypes  of  persons  deified  in  the 
times  of  the  Rabbis,  be  it  Roman  emperors  or  Jewish 
Messiahs.  And  it  was,  as  we  may  imagine,  under  the 
pressure  of  this  controversy  that  the  Rabbis  availed 
themselves  of  any  appellatives  for  God,  as  well  as  of 
any  allegorical  interpretation,  that  served  as  a  check 
against  this  deification  tendency. 

It  would,  however,  be  a  mistake  to  think  that  the 
Rabbis  attached  to  appellatives  for  God,  such  as 
Shechinah,  or  Word,  the  same  meaning  which  they 
have  received  in  Hellenistic  schools,  or  in  the  theology 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church.  Hallam  somewhere 
quotes  the  shrewd  remark  of  Montaigne,  to  the  effect 
that  we  should  try  a  man  who  says  a  wise  thing,  for 
we  may  often  find  that  he  does  not  understand  it. 

I  am  not  quite  certain  as  to  the  wisdom  of  the  alle- 
gorical method  and  the  various  appellatives  for  God, 
some  of  which  may  perhaps  have  been  of  Hellenistic 
origin.  But  I  am  convinced  that  the  Rabbis  hardly 
understood  the  real  significance  and  the  inevitable  con- 
sequences of  their  use. 

Indeed,   it  soon   must  have  become   clear   to   the 

1  Tan.y  IT'tyXna,  7.  Cf.  Jellinek,  Beth  Hamjnidrash,  5,  p.  in  and 
Introduction. 


40        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Rabbis  that  the  allegorising  method  could  be  turned 
into  a  very  dangerous  weapon  against  the  very  principle 
which  it  was  meant  to  defend.  Not  only  was  it  largely 
used  by  the  adversaries  of  the  synagogue,  as  a  means 
for  justifying  the  abolition  of  the  Law,  but  the  terms 
which  were  accepted  in  order  to  weaken  or  nullify 
anthropomorphic  expressions  were  afterwards  hyposta- 
tised  and  invested  with  a  semi-independent  existence, 
or  personified  as  the  creatures  of  God.  This  will  explain 
the  fact  that,  along  with  the  allegorising  tendency,  there 
is  also  a  marked  tendency  in  the  opposite  direction, 
insisting  on  the  literal  sense  of  the  word  of  the  Bible, 
and  even  exaggerating  the  corporeal  terms. ^ 

1  See  Weiss,  T'Tl.  i  iii.  Weber  (pp.  153  and  179)  makes  a  differ- 
ence between  the  Targumim  and  the  later  Rabbinism.  This  theory 
is  based  chiefly  on  the  assumption  of  the  great  antiquity  of  the 
former,  which  is  still  doubtful.  A  good  essay  on  the  various  heresies 
which  the  Rabbis  had  to  face,  and  which  would,  as  I  believe,  throw 
much  light  on  the  inconsistencies  of  the  Targumim  and  of  the  Rabbis 
concerning  the  question  of  anthropomorphism,  is  still  a  desideratum. 
That  too  much  Targum  only  served  to  increase  the  danger,  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  extract  from  the   MHG.  (Ms.),  to  Exod.    24   10, 

r\'^r\  nn"pntr  ♦  ^Kin  ni  nn  bxitr^i  khSx  n^  iim  bKntr^  ^rb^  nx 
Pinna  r\\  nn  bi^-itrn  xn^K  nrstr  'np^  n^  irm  Djnn  ♦nxnD  irxi 

bxi  nrSE^I  np^  n^bti?  IXD  ntrir  Xintr^  P]-IJai.  »  R.  Eliezer  said  : 
He  who  translates  a  verse  (from  the  Bible)  literally  is  a  liar.  He  who 
adds  to  it  commits  blasphemy.  For  instance,  if  he  translated  (the 
above-quoted  verse).  And  they  saw  the  God  of  Israel,  he  spoke  an 
untruth  ;  for  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  sees,  but  is  not  seen.  But 
if  he  translated,  And  they  saiv  the  glory  of  the  Shechina  of  the  God  of 
Israel,  he  commits  blasphemy,  for  he  makes  three  (a  Trinity),  namely, 


GOD   AND    THE  WORLD  41 

We  have  unfortunately  no  sufficient  data  enabling 
us  to  form  a  real  picture  of  this  great  theological  struggle. 
What  we  perceive  is  rather  confusion  and  perplexity. 

The  following  fragment  from  a  controversy  between 
a  Jew  and  a  certain  heretic  will  perhaps  give  us  some 
idea  of  this  confusion.  We  read  in  Exod.  24  1,  "And 
unto  Moses  he  said,  Come  up  to  the  Lord."  Said 
the  heretic  to  the  Rabbi,  "If  it  was  God  who  called 
Moses,  it  ought  to  be :  And  unto  Moses  he  said,  Come 
up  to  w^."  The  Rabbi  answers  that  by  the  word 
he  is  meant  the  angel  Metatron  who  commanded  Moses 
to  ascend  to  God,  the  Rabbi  identifying  this  angel, 
"  whose  name  is  like  that  of  his  master,"  with  the 
angel  spoken  of  in  chapter  23*20,  21.  What  follows  now 
is  not  quite  clear,  but  we  see  the  heretic  claiming  quite 
logically  worship  for  Metatron  (and  perhaps  also  the 
power  of  forgiving  sin),  whilst  the  Rabbi  retorts, 
"  Faith  in  thy  hands !  We  have  not  accepted  him 
even  as  a  messenger,  as  it  is  written,  '  If  thy  presence 

Glory,  Shechina,  and  God."  See  Das  Fragmententargum  by  M.  Gins- 
burger,  p.  43,  where  this  rendering  of  Exod.  24  is  to  be  found.  See 
also  Kiddushin,  49  a,  and  Tosephta  Megillah,  p.  228,  and  commentaries, 
and  cf.  Berliner  Targum,  2,  pp.  87  and  1 73.  Our  version  proves  that  the 
objections  were  of  a  dogmatic  nature.  The  fact  that  X""l  is  introducing 
it  makes  me  believe  that  the  passage  may  have  been  in  the  i^'Hl  pIS 
(perhaps  c.  45).  In  the  older  Jewish  hterature,  the  Christians  are 
never  introduced  as  Trinitarians.  Instructive  is  also  the  fact  that  some 
Genizah   fragments    of  the    Passover   Hagada  have  after    the   words 

rh^  •'T  b^  k'?,  the  addition  nmn  •'T  bi7  '^,  ittsiun  ribpn  k^k. 

Cf.  the  phrase  "limn  ''S  b"^  D13«.  Cf.  the  Jewish  Quarterly  Review, 
vol.  X  (1897-8),  p.  51. 


42        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

go  not  (with  us),  carry  us  not  up  hence '  "  (Exod. 
33  16).  The  heretic  thus  urges  logical  consistency  and 
is  ready  to  develop  a  whole  theology  from  a  doubtful 
interpretation  ;  the  Rabbi  is  less  logical,  but  merely 
insists  upon  the  fact  that  Israel  refused  to  give  angels 
divine  honours  or  divine  prerogatives.^ 

The  fact  is  that  the  Rabbis  were  a  simple,  naive 
people,  filled  with  a  childlike  scriptural  faith,  neither 
wanting  nor  bearing  much  analysis  and  interpretation. 
"Common  sense,"  is  somewhere  aptly  remarked,  " tells 
us  what  is  meant  by  the  words  '  My  Lord  and  my 
God';  and  a  religious  man  upon  his  knees  requires 
no  commentator."  More  emphatically  the  same 
thought  is  expressed  in  the  quaint  answer  of  a  med- 
iaeval Rabbi,  who,  when  asked  as  to  the  meaning 
(philosophic  or  mystic)  he  was  wont  to  give  to  his  prayers, 
replied,  "I  pray  with  the  meaning  of  this  child."  ^ 
Such  simple  people,  however,  were  unequal  to  the 
task  of  meeting  on  the  battlefield  of  speculation  the 
champions  of  the  Alexandrine  schools.  The  apergu 
stigmatising  the  Rabbis  as  the  "virtuosi"  of  religion 
is  well  known  and  has  in  it  some  appearance  of  truth. 
A  single  letter,  or  a  mere  suffix  or  prefix,  or  a  particle, 
would  suffice  for  the  Rabbis  to  derive  therefrom,  if  not 
exactly  a  new  custom  or  law,  at  least  to  give  the  latter 

iSee  Sanhedrin,  38  b,  and  commentaries  (also  Edeles).  The  text 
is  somewhat  corrupt.  Cf.  Rabbinowicz,  Varies  Lectiones  a.  I.  and  the 
commentary  of  R.  Chananel  a.  I.  Cf.  Joel,  Blicke,  i  127  ;  Bacher,  Ag, 
Am.,  3  708,  and  Jacob,  Im  Namen  Gottes,  p.  41,  n.  1. 

2  See  Responsa  of  R.  Isaac  b.  Shesheth,  §  157. 


GOD   AND   THE  WORLD  43 

some  foundation  in  the  Scriptures.  But  the  apergu 
would  have  more  point  and  be  more  complete,  if 
we  would  add  that  the  antagonists  of  the  Rabbis  were 
just  as  expert  "virtuosi"  in  dogmas  and  theosophies. 
What  to  the  Rabbis  was  a  simple  adjective,  a  rever- 
ential expression,  or  a  poetical  metaphor,  turned  in 
the  hands  of  the  Hellenists  into  a  new  deity,  an  aeon,  or 
a  distinct  emanation.  The  Rabbis  felt  perplexed,  and 
in  their  consternation  and  horror  went,  as  we  have 
seen,  from  one  extreme  to  the  other. ^ 

The  consternation  felt  by  the  Rabbis,  at  the  thought 
of  possible  consequences,  may  perhaps  be  realised 
by  the  following  passage  with  allusion  to  Exod.  19  2: 
"The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  appeared  to  them  on 
the  (Red)  Sea  as  a  mighty  warrior  (Exod.  15  3)  and 
revealed  himself  on  Mount  Sinai  as  a  scribe  teaching 
Torah,  and  was  also  visible  to  them  in  the  days  of 
Daniel,  and  as  Elder  teaching  Torah  (Dan.  7  9)  he 
(therefore)  said  to  them, '  Think  not  on  account  of  these 
manifold  appearances,  there  are  many  deities.  I  am 
the  Lord  thy  God.  The  God  of  the  Sea  is  the  God  of 
the  Sinai.'  The  warning  comes  from  God  himself  and 
shows  the  danger  of  the  situation;  indeed,  it  had  be- 
come so  threatening  that  even  such  innocent  rhetorical 
exclamations  as  'My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou 
forsaken   me?'    (Ps.    22   2)    were   apparently   subject 

1  The  difference  between  the  Rabbi  and  the  Hellenist  in  this  respect 
may  perhaps  be  reduced  to  this :  The  Rabbi  may  speak  of  the  Dibbur 
or  the  Memra,  but  means  God  ;  the  Hellenist  may  speak  of  God,  but 
means  the  Dibbur  or  the  Memra. 


44        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

to  misinterpretation,  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  em- 
phasise on  this  occasion,  too,  the  God  of  the  Red  Sea 
is  the  God  of  the  Revelation."  ^ 

Even  more  striking  is  the  following  Rabbinic  homily 
on  Exod.  3  7,  "And  the  Lord  said  I  have  surely  seen 
the  affliction  of  my  people":  "God  said  to  Moses, 
*  Thou  seest  only  one  sight,  but  I  see  two  sights.  Thou 
seest  them  coming  to  Mt.  Sinai  and  receiving  there  my 
Torah  ;  but  I  see  also  their  making  the  golden  calf. 
When  I  shall  come  to  Sinai  to  give  them  the  Torah,  I 
will  come  down  with  my  chariot  of  four  chayoth 
(Ezek.  I  5-10),  from  which  they  will  abstract  one  (of 
the  four  —  the  ox  or  the  calf),  by  which  they  will  pro- 
voke me.'  "  ^ 

Amidst  all  these  embarrassments,  contradictions, 
confusions,  and  aberrations,  however,  the  great  prin- 
ciple of  the  Synagogue,  that  worship  is  due  only  to 
God,  remained  untouched.  Into  the  liturgy  none  of 
the  stranger  appellations  of  God  were  admitted. 
"When  man  is  in  distress,"  says  R.  Judah,  "he  does 
not  first  call  upon  his  patron,  but  seeks  admittance  to 
him  through  the  medium  of  his  servant  or  his  agent ; 

1  See  p.  K.,  109  b ;  M.  T.,  22 16.  ^Tn'2  ^^K  S^IO  D^n  ^^K.  Cf.  P.  R. 
100  b  and  loi  «,  and  note  31  to  the  last  page.  See  also  Tan.  B.,  2  40  b. 
Cf.  Kuzari,  ed.  Cassel,  313,  note  i. 

2  See  Exod.  R.,  32;  42  5,  text  and  references  given  there  in  the 
commentaries.  Cf.  Ezek.  i  9  and  10  ;  Ps.  106  19  and  20.  See  also 
Nachmanides  to  Exod.  18  i,who  gives  fuller  and  better  readings  of  the 
passage  in  the  Midrash.  Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Pal.,  i  43.  About  the 
notion  that  God  came  down  from  Mt.  Sinai  with  the  chariot,  see 
P.fC.,  107  b. 


GOD   AND   THE  WORLD  45 

but  it  is  different  with  God.  Let  no  man  in  misfortune 
cry  either  unto  Michael  or  Gabriel,  but  pray  unto  me 
(God),  and  I  will  answer  him  at  once,  as  it  is  said: 
'Whosoever  shall  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall 
be  delivered'"  (Joel  3  5)/  "Come  and  see,"  says 
another  Rabbi,  "that  in  the  portions  of  the  Scriptures 
treating  of  sacrifices,  no  other  name  of  God  is  ever 
used  than  the  Tetragrammaton.  This  is  done  so  as 
not  to  give  room  for  heretical  interpretations,"  ^  which 
might  claim  divine  worship  for  some  other  being. 
When  the  Rabbis  fixed  the  rule,  that  no  form  of  bene- 
diction is  permissible  in  which  the  name  of  God  does 
not  occur,^  they  were  probably  guided  by  the  same 
principle.  At  a  certain  period  in  history,  when  the 
heresy  of  the  new  sects  was  threatening  to  affect  larger 
classes,  the  Rabbis  even  enforced  the  utterance  of  the 
Tetragrammaton  in  every  benediction,  lest  there  should 
be  some  misunderstanding  to  whom  prayer  is  directed.* 

"^  Jer.  Berachoth,  13  «. 

2  See  Sifre,  54  a.     <Zi.  T.  K.,  3  c.     See  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.  i  422. 

3  Berachoth,  40  b. 

*  See  Tosephta  Berachoth,  9,  ed.  Schwartz,  and  notes  (Graetz,  Ge- 
schichte,  3  458).     See  also  Jacob,  Im  Namen  Gottes,  p.  174. 


Ill 

GOD  AND   ISRAEL 

We  saw  in  the  preceding  chapter  that  neither  the 
terms  of  space  nor  heaven  as  applied  to  God,  nor  the 
imaginary  descriptions  placing  his  particular  abode  on 
high,  meant  for  the  Rabbis  remoteness  from  the  world. 
Whatever  the  faults  of  the  Rabbis  were,  consistency 
was  not  one  of  them.  Neither  speculation  nor  folklore 
was  ever  allowed  to  be  converted  into  rigid  dogma. 
As  it  was  pointed  out,  when  the  Rabbis  were  taught 
by  experience  that  certain  terms  meant  for  superficial 
proselytes  only  a  reflex  of  their  former  deities,  they  not 
only  abandoned  them  for  a  time,  but  substituted  for 
them  even  the  Tetragrammaton  itself ;  a  strong  measure, 
taken  in  contradiction  to  ancient  custom  and  tradition, 
and  thus  proving  how  anxious  the  Rabbis  were  that 
nothing  should  intervene  between  man  and  God. 
J  We  shall  now  proceed  to  show  how  still  more  intimate 
and  close  was  the  relation  maintained  and  felt  between 
God  and  Israel.  He  is  their  God,  their  father,  their 
strength,  their  shepherd,  their  hope,  their  salvation, 
their  safety;  they  are  his  people,  his  children,  his 
first-born  son,  his  treasure,  dedicated  to  his  name, 
which  it  is  sacrilege  to  profane.  In  brief,  there  is 
not  a  single  endearing  epithet  in  the  language,  such  as 

46 


GOD  AND  ISRAEL  47 

brother,  sister,  bride,  mother,  lamb,  or  eye,  which  is 
not,  according  to  the  Rabbis,  applied  by  the  Scriptures 
to  express  this  intimate  relation  between  God  and  his 
people/  God  is  even  represented  by  the  Rabbis  as 
saying  to  Moses,  "As  much  as  thou  canst  exalt  this 
nation  (Israel)  exalt  it,  for  it  is  as  if  thou  wert  exalting 
me.  Praise  it  as  much  as  thou  canst,  glorify  it  as  much 
as  thou  canst,  for  in  them  I  will  be  glorified,  as  it  is 
said,  'Thou  art  my  servant,  O  Israel,  in  whom  I  will 
be  glorified'"  (Isa.  49  3).^  "What  is  his  (God's) 
name?  El  Shaddai,  Zebaoth.  What  is  the  name  of 
his  son?  Israeli"^  Nay,  more,  though  a  king  of 
flesh  and  blood  would  resent  to  hear  one  of  his  subjects 
arrogating  his  title  (as  Caesar  Augustus),  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  himself  confers  on  Israel  the  names 
by  which  he  is  himself  distinguished,  as  wise,  holy, 
the  chosen  ones,  and  does  not  even  deny  them  the  title 
of  gods,  as  it  is  written,  "I  have  said,  Ye  are  gods'' 
(Ps.  826).^ 

This  intimacy  of  relationship  is  reciprocal.  "He 
(God)  needs  us   even    as    we  need    him"  was  a  fa- 

1  This  feature  is  so  strongly  represented  in  the  Rabbinic  literature 
that  I  must  satisfy  myself  with  a  few  general  references.  See  T.  IC., 
44.  c ;  Mechilta,  28  a,  29  b,  41  b^  43  b,  44  a,  57  a,(i2b\  P. K.,  1  a,l  b, 
/^  a,  4  b,  47  a,  47  b,  50  a,  104  a,  157  a  ;  G^n.  R.,  81  ;  Exod.  E.,  15,  20, 
27,  33,  52 ;  Lev.  R.,  2.  See  also  Sifre,  68  a,  Spi:^  pnr  DmnX  ^:n 
nnn  ]1trb  b>D1  ♦  *  *  D^nX  IKnpOU?.  The  various  Midrashim  as  well  as 
the  Targum  to  the  Song  of  Songs  is  permeated  by  the  same  tendency. 
Cf.  Elbogen,  Rdigionsanchauutigen  der  Pharisaer,  p.  60  seq. 

2  Lev.  R.,  2  5.  3  See  P.R.^isa.     Cf.  P.  K.,  4  b. 
4  See  M.  T.,  21  2;  Exod.  R.,  8 1. 


48        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

vourite  axiom  with  certain  mystics.  In  the  language 
of  the  Rabbis  we  should  express  the  same  sentiment 
thus,  "  One  God  through  Israel,  and  one  Israel  through 
God.  They  are  his  selected  people,  and  he  is  their 
selected  portion."  ^  "  God  is  the  help  and  the  support  of 
all  mankind,  but  still  more  of  Israel."  "They  recog- 
nised in  him  the  King,  and  he  recognised  in  them  the 
masters  of  the  world.  .  .  .  Israel  declares  (his  unity) 
in  the  words,  'Hear,  O  Israel:  The  Lord  our  God, 
the  Lord  is  one^  (Deut.  64);  and  the  holy  spirit 
(or  word  of  God)  proclaims  their  election  (in  the 
words),  'And  who  is  like  thy  people  Israel,  a  nation 
that  is  one  (or  alone)  in  the  earth'"  (i  Chron.  17  21).^ 
"He  glorified  them  when  he  said,  'Israel  is  my  son, 
even  my  first-born,'  whilst  they  sang  a  song  unto  him 
in  Egypt."  ^  Israel  brought  him  down  by  their  praise 
(from  all  the  seven  heavens  to  earth,  as  it  is  said,  "And 
let  them  make  me  a  sanctuary,  that  I  may  dwell  among 
them")  (Exod.  25  9),  and  he  lifted  them  by  his  praise 
above  [to  the  heaven],  as  it  is  said,  "That  the  Lord 
thy  God  will  set  thee  on  high  above"  (Deut.  28  1).* 
"  Blessed  be  his  (God's)  name  for  ever,"  exclaims  a 
Rabbi,  enthusiastically,  "who  left  those  above  and 
chose  those  below  to  dwell  in  the  Tabernacle  because 
of  his  love  of  Israel."^     Indeed,  the  Holy  One,  blessed 

1  Sifr^,  134  b. 

2  See  Mechilta,  36  b ;    Chagigah,  3  «,  3  3,  and  parallels.    Cf.  Bacher, 
Ag.   Tan.,  i  235,  and  Levy,   Talmud.    Worterbuch,    s.   ni^?3K,   2,  and 

nn^tari.  3  Mechuta,  35  b. 

*  See  Cant.,  R.,  5  16.      ^  j^^n.  B.,  33  a.     Cf.  Tan.  B.,  2ii  a  and  b. 


GOD  AND  ISRAEL  49 

be  he,  says  to  Israel,  you  are  my  flock  and  I  am  the 
shepherd,  make  a  hut  for  the  shepherd  that  he  come 
and  provide  for  you ;  you  are  the  vineyard  and  I  am 
the  watcher,  make  a  tent  for  the  watcher  that  he  guards 
you ;  you  are  the  children  and  I  am  the  father,  —  it  is 
a  glory  for  the  father  when  he  is  with  his  children  and 
a  glory  for  the  children  when  they  are  with  their  father ; 
make  therefore  a  house  for  the  father  that  he  comes 
and  dwells  with  his  children.^ 

Israel  bears  in  common  with  the  angels  such  names 
as  gods,  holy  ones,  children  (of  God).  But  God  loves 
Israel  more  than  the  angels.  Israel's  prayer  being 
more  acceptable  to  him  than  the  song  of  the  angels, 
whilst  the  righteous  in  Israel  are  in  closer  contact  with 
the  Deity  than  the  angels,  and  are  consulted  by  them  as 
to  "what  God  hath  wrought."  ^ 

1  Exod.  R.,  33  8. 

2  See  Chullin  91  b.  Yalkut  i  §  890  (quotation  from  the  Yelamdenu). 
Yalkut  to  Prov.,  §  951,  and  Shabbath  8  d.  Cf.  also  Friedmann,  D^nSDS, 
p.  47,  to  which  more  passages  of  a  similar  nature  can  be  added.  It 
should,  however,  be  remarked  that  the  rationalistic  school  rather 
objected  to  this  teaching  of  the  inferiority  of  angels.  Cf.  Schmiedel's 
Studien  uber  .  .  .  Religionsphilosophie,  p.  70  seq.^  and  p.  78  seq. 
Cf.  also  R.  Meir  ibn  Gabbai's  tt^lp.l  mini?,  the  ten  first  chapters  of 
the  section  n^^SD.  In  general,  the  behef  in  angels  was  fairly  maintained 
by  Rabbinism  throughout  all  its  history,  although  it  was  only  David 
Bilia  (fourteenth  century)  who  raised  it  to  the  importance  of  a  dogma. 
Cf.  Schechter,  Studies  in  Judaism,  p.  203.  For  opposing  tendencies  in 
comparatively   early   times,    see   Exod.   R.,    17  5,    riK  ^IWb  'H  1S1?1 

iD^un  T["^pr^  x'"i  yhn^  ^"i?  x'^  onio.    see  also  ^'T\T\i:i  to  this 

passage.  Naturally,  it  was  subject  in  the  course  of  history  to  all  sorts 
of  interpretations,   qualifications,   and    modifications.     Cf.    Professor 


50       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

Again,  "He  who  rises  up  against  Israel  rises  up  against 
God;  hence  the  cause  of  Israel  is  the  cause  of  God; 
their  ally  is  also  his."  ^  For  God  suffers  with  them  in 
their  suffering  and  is  with  them  in  their  distress.^ 
Their  subjection  implies  his  subjection,^  and  his  pres- 
ence accompanies  them  through  their  various  captivities 
among  the  Gentiles.^  Therefore  their  redemption  is 
his  redemption,^  their  joy  is  his  joy,^  their  salvation  his 
salvation,^  and  their  light  his  light. ^ 

Their  cause  is  indeed  so  closely  identified  with  God's 
cause  that  on  the  occasion  of  the  great  historical  crisis 
at  the  Red  Sea,  God  is  supposed  rather  to  resent  the 
lengthy  prayer  of  Moses,  and  says  unto  him,  *' Where- 
fore criest  thou  to  me?  (Exod.  14  15).  I  need  no 
asking  for  my  children,  as  it  is  said,  'Wilt  thou  ask 
me  concerning  my  children?'"  (Isa.  45  11).^  The 
recognition  of  this  fatherhood  is  all  that  God  wants 
from   Israel.     "All   the   wonders    and    mighty   deeds 

Blau's  article  Angelology.  Occasionally,  the  authorities  would  have  to 
enter  their  protest  against  such  excesses  as  invocations  addressed  to 
the  angels  soliciting  their  intercession.  See  Kerem  Ckerned,  9  uiseq.y 
and  Zunz,  Synagogale  Poesie,  p.  148  seq. 

1  Mechilia,  39  a,  2>9  ^  '■,   Si/re,  29  b  and  parallels. 

2  P.  K.,  47  a.    By  Israel  is  also  meant  the  individual.    See  Mechilia^ 

ij  a,  119  b,  ]':ri  Tn"*  ni^t  "na^:r  nn2i  k^k  'b  px,  etc.,  s.  e.,  p.  89. 

Cf.  Sabbath,  12  b. 

3  Mechilta,  16  a. 

4  Si/re,  62  b;  P.  A'.,  113  b.     Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  i  283,  note  2. 
s  Mechilta,  16  a.  7  ^^^j.  P.,  9  3. 

6  Ibid.,  56  a.  8  See  P.  K.,  144  b. 

^  See  Mechilta,  30  a.     Cf.  Nutn.  P.,  21. 


GOD  AND  ISRAEL  $1 

which  I  have  done  for  you,"  says  God  unto  Israel, 
"  were  not  performed  with  the  purpose  of  being  re- 
warded (by  you),  but  that  you  honour  me  like  children 
and  call  me  your  father."  ^  The  filial  relationship  suffers 
no  interference,  whether  for  good  or  evil,  of  a  third 
person  between  Israel  and  God.  Israel  loves  him  and 
loves  his  house,  no  man  indeed  knowing  the  love  which 
is  between  Israel  and  their  Maker.  And  so  does  the 
Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  love  them.  He  wants  to  hear 
Israel's  voice  (as  expressed  in  prayer),  and  is  anxious 
for  them  to  hsten  unto  his  voice.^  According  to  another 
explanation  (of  Exod.  1415),  Moses  was  given  to  under- 
stand that  there  was  no  need  for  his  prayers,  the  Holy 
One  by  his  intimate  relation  to  Israel  being  almost 
himself  in  distress.^ 

This  paternal  relation,  according  to  the  great  major- 
ity of  the  Rabbis,   is   unconditional.     Israel  will  be 

1  £xod.  R.,  32  5.  2  jif^  T.,  116  1. 

3  Mechilta,  29  b,  in  the  name  of  R.  ^C^bpt  p  T\T':>n.  Some  parallel 
to  this  strong  confidence  in  the  identity  of  Israel's  cause  and  God's  may 
be  found  in  various  utterances  of  Luther,  as,  "  Know  that  God  so  takes 
thee  to  himself,  that  thy  enemies  are  his  enemies  "  ;  or,  "  He  who 
despises  me  despises  God  "  ;  or,  "  God  suffers  and  is  despised  and 
persecuted  in  us."  And  when  anxiously  waiting  for  news  from  the 
Diet  at  Augsburg,  "  I  know,"  he  was  overheard  saying,  or  rather 
praying,  "  that  thou  art  our  father  and  our  God  ;  I  am  certain,  there- 
fore, that  thou  art  about  to  destroy  the  persecutors  of  thy  children.  If 
thou  doest  this  not,  then  our  danger  is  thine  too.  This  business  is 
wholly  thine.  We  come  to  it  under  compulsion.  Thou,  therefore, 
defend."  See  the  preface  of  the  Bishop  of  Durham  (p.  xi)  to  the 
volume,  Lombard  Street  in  Lent.  See  also  Mr.  Beard  in  his  Hibbert 
Lectures^  p.  87. 


52        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

chastised  for  its  sins,  even  more  severely  than  other 
nations  for  theirs;  but  this  is  only  another  proof  of 
God's  fatherly  love.  For  it  was  only  through  suffering 
that  Israel  obtained  the  greatest  gifts  from  heaven/ 
and  what  is  still  more  important  to  note  is,  that  it  was 
affliction  which  "reconciled  and  attached  the  son  to 
the  father  (Israel  to  God)."'  ''The  Israelites  are 
God's  children  even  when  full  of  blemishes,"  and  the 
words,  "A  seed  of  evildoers,  children  that  are  corrupt" 
(Isa.  I  4),  are  cited  as  a  proof  that  even  corruption  can- 
not entirely  destroy  the  natural  relation  between  father 
and  child.^  Indeed,  when  Isaiah  received  the  call, 
"the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said  unto  him,  'Isaiah ! 
my  children  are  troublesome  and  rebellious.  If  thou 
dost  take  upon  thyself  to  be  insulted  and  beaten  by 
my  children  thou  wilt  be  sent  as  my  messenger,  not 
otherwise!'  Isaiah  answered,  'Yes,  on  this  condition. 
As  it  is  said,  "  I  gave  my  back  to  smiters  and  my  cheeks 
to  them  that  plucked  off  the  hair  (Isa.  50  6),"  I  am 
not  even  worthy  to  carry  messages  to  thy  children.'"  * 
But  Elijah,  the  Rabbis  say,  who  in  his  zeal  denounced 
Israel,  saying,  "  I  have  been  very  jealous  for  the  Lord 
God  of  hosts;  because  the  children  of  Israel  have 
forsaken  thy  covenant,  thrown  down  thine  altars,  and 
slain  thy  prophets  with  the  sword"   (i  Kings  19  w), 

1  See  Berachothf  5  a,  and  Exod.  R.,  1 1. 

2  Sifre,  73  b.     Cf.  M.  T.,  96.  3  sifre,  133  a,  133  b. 

*  Lev.  R.fiO'i  and  references.    Cf.  also  Exod.  R.,  7  3,  regarding  the 
call  of  Moses  and  Aaron. 


GOD  AND  ISRAEL  53 

was  dismissed  with  the  answer,  "I  have  no  desire  in  thy 
prophecy";  and  his  prophetic  office  was  transferred  to 
the  milder  Elisha,  the  son  of  Shaphat,  who  was  anointed 
in  Elijah's  place  (19  le).  Likewise  is  the  Prophet 
Hosea  rebuked  for  his  refraining  from  praying  for 
Israel,  God  saying  unto  him.  They  are  my  beloved 
ones,  the  sons  of  my  beloved  ones,  the  sons  of  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob.  For  this  is  indeed  the  glory 
of  both  patriarchs  and  prophets,  that  they  are  pre- 
pared to  give  themselves  (as  an  atoning  sacrifice)  for 
Israel;  as,  for  instance,  Moses,  who  said  in  case 
God  would  not  forgive  the  sin  of  Israel,  "Blot  me,  I 
pray  thee,  out  of  thy  book  which  thou  hast  written" 
(Exod.  23  32).  Jeremiah,  however,  who  proved  him- 
self just  as  jealous  for  the  glory  of  the  son  (Israel) 
as  for  the  glory  of  the  father  (God),  saying  as  he  did, 
"We  have  transgressed  and  have  rebelled:  thou  hast 
not  pardoned"  (Lam.  3  42)  (thus  though  confessing 
Israel's  guilt,  still  reproaching  God,  so  to  speak,  for 
his  declining  to  forgive),  was  rewarded  by  the  con- 
tinuation of  his  gift  of  prophecy,  as  it  is  said,  "And 
he  adds  besides  unto  them  many  like  words"  (Jer. 
36  32).*  And,  it  is  on  the  strength  of  this  view  of 
childship  that  some  of  the  prophets  pleaded  with  God 
on  behalf  of  Israel.  "Behold,"  they  said  to  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  "thou  sayest  (because  of  their 
transgressions)  they  are  not  any  longer  thy  children, 

1  See  Mechiltay  2  a.     See  also  Pesachim,  87  a  and  S.  E.  Z.,  p.  187, 
text  and  notes. 


54        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

but  they  are  recognisable  by  their  countenances  as  it 
is  said,  'All  that  see  them  shall  acknowledge  them 
that  they  are  the  seed,  which  the  Lord  has  blessed' 
(Is.  6 1  9).  As  it  is  the  way  of  the  Father  to  be  merci- 
ful with  his  children  though  they  sin,  so  thou  wilt 
have  mercy  with  them  (notwithstanding  their  relapses). 
This  is  (the  meaning  of  the  verse) :  '  But  now,  O  Lord, 
thou  art  our  father.  ...  Be  not  wroth  very  sore, 
O  Lord,  neither  remember  iniquity  forever'"  (Isa.  64 
8,  9).^  Indeed,  God  says,  after  you  (Israel)  stood  on 
the  mount  of  Sinai  and  received  the  Torah  and  I 
wrote  of  you  that  I  love  you ;  and  since  I  loved  you, 
how  could  I  hate  you  (considering  that  I  loved  you  as 
children)  ?  ^ 

The  only  opponent  to  the  view  of  the  majority  re- 
garding the  paternal  relation  is  R.  Judah,  who  limits 
it  to  the  time  when  Israel  acts  as  children  should  act.^ 
When  R.  Akiba,  in  a  time  of  great  distress,  opened  the 
public  service  with  the  formula,  "Our  father,  our 
king,  we  have  sinned  against  thee ;  our  father,  our  king, 
forgive  us,"  he  only  expressed  the  view  of  the  great 
majority,  that  Israel  may  claim  their  filial  privileges 
even  if  they  have  sinned.^  The  formula  of  the  daily 
confession,  "Forgive  us,  O  our  Father,  for  we  have 
sinned,"  points  in  the  same  direction.     In  fact,  the 

1  Exod  JR.,  46  4. 

2  See  Exod.  J?.,  32  2.     Cf.  Commentaries  a.  I. 

2  Sifre,  133  <z  and  b.     Cf.  also  94  a  and  Kidduskin,  36  a. 
*  Taanith,  26  b.     See  Rabbinowitz,  Variae  LecHones,  a.  /.,  and  Baer, 
p.  1 19,  text  and  commentary.     Cf.  Low,  Gesam?nelie  Schriften,  i  m. 


GOD   AND   ISRAEL  55 

term  ''Father,"  or  "Our  Father,  who  is  in  heaven," 
or  "My  Father,  who  is  in  heaven,"  is  one  of  the  most 
frequent  in  the  Jewish  Prayer  Book  and  the  subsequent 
liturgy.  The  latter  seems  to  have  been  a  favourite 
expression  with  the  Tanna  of  the  school  of  Elijah, 
who  very  often  introduces  his  comments  on  the  Bible 
(a  mixture  of  homiletics  and  prayer)  with  the  words, 
"My  Father  in  heaven,  may  thy  great  name  be  blessed 
for  all  eternity,  and  mayest  thou  have  delight  in  thy 
people  Israel."  ^  Another  consequence  of  this  fatherly 
relation  is  that  Israel  feels  a  certain  ease  and  delight  in 
the  fulfilment  of  the  Law  which  to  slaves  is  burdensome 
and  perplexing.  For  "the  son  who  serves  his  father 
serves  him  with  joy,  saying,  'Even  if  I  do  not  entirely 
succeed  (in  carrying  out  his  commandments),  yet,  as  a 
loving  father,  he  will  not  be  angry  with  me';  whilst 
the  Gentile  slave  is  always  afraid  lest  he  may  commit 
some  fault,  and  therefore  serves  God  in  a  condition 
of  anxiety  and  confusion."  ^  Indeed,  when  Israel 
feels  uneasy  because  of  their  having  to  stand  in  judge- 

1  See  S.E.,  pp.  51,  53,  83,  89,  100,  no,  115,  121.  The  formula 
D''^tt'3ti?  '^'2'^  occurs  on  p.  112  eight  times.  Cf.  Friedmann's  Intro- 
duction, p.  80. 

2  Tan.  n3,  19.  Israel's  relation  to  God  seems  only  then  to  assume 
the  aspect  of  slavery,  when  the  whole  nation  is  determined  to  aposta- 
tise. Then  God  enforces  his  mastership  over  them  by  the  right  of  pos- 
session. This  seems  to  me  the  meaning  of  the  rather  obscure  passage 
in  Exod.  R.,  24,  i,  "]Dp  T\)lh  "j^SK  DX  K'H.  Cf.  ibid.  3,  §  6,  where 
a  distinction  is  made  between  the  individual  and  the  greater  number 
of  Israel,  to  the  former  free  action  being  left ;  this  contains  undoubt- 
edly a  deep  historical  truth.     See  also  Sifre,  112  b. 


56       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

merit  before  God,  the  angels  say  unto  them,  "Fear 
ye  not  the  judgement.  .  .  .  Know  ye  not  him?  He 
is  your  next  of  kin,  he  is  your  brother,  but  what  is 
more,  he  is  your  father.''  ^ 

^M.  r.,  11810. 


IV 

ELECTION   OF   ISRAEL 

The  quotations  in  the  preceding  chapter  will  suflSce 
to  show  the  confidence  with  the  Rabbis  felt  in  the 
especially  intimate  relations  existing  between  God  and 
Israel.  This  renders  it  necessary  to  make  here  some 
reference  to  the  doctrine  of  Israel's  election  by  God, 
which  in  fact  is  only  another  term  for  this  special 
relation  between  the  two.  "  To  love  means  in  fact, 
to  choose  or  to  elect."  The  doctrine  has  found  no 
place  in  Maimonides'  Thirteen  Articles  of  the  Creed, 
but  still  even  a  cursory  perusal  of  Bible  and  Talmud 
leaves  no  doubt  that  the  notion  of  the  election  always 
maintained  in  Jewish  consciousness  the  character  of  at 
least  an  unformulated  dogma. ^ 

The  Rabbinic  belief  in  the  election  of  Israel  finds, 
perhaps,  its  clearest  expression  in  a  prayer  which 
begins  as  follows:  "Thou  hast  chosen  us  from  all 
peoples;  thou  hast  loved  us  and  taken  pleasure  in  us, 
and  hast  exalted  us  above  all  tongues;  thou  hast 
sanctified  us  by  thy  commandments  and  brought  us 
near  unto  thy  service;  O  our  King,  thou  hast  called 
us  by  thy  great  and  holy  name."     These  words,  which 

1  See  Weiss,  *l"n,  3  301.     Cf.  Kaufmann,  /.  Q.  J?.,  2  442. 
57 


58        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

Still  breathe  a  certain  scriptural  air,  are  based,  as  may 
be  easily  seen,  on  the  Biblical  passages  of  Deut.  lo  is, 
142;  Ps.  149  2;  and  Jer.  14  27.^  There  was  thus 
hardly  any  necessity  for  the  Rabbis  to  give  any  reasons 
for  their  belief  in  this  doctrine,  resting  as  it  does  on 
ample  Biblical  authority;  though,  as  it  would  seem, 
they  were  not  quite  unconscious  of  the  difhculties  which 
such  a  doctrine  involves.  Thus  Moses  is  represented 
by  them  as  asking  God:  "Why  out  of  all  the  seventy 
nations  of  the  world  dost  thou  give  me  instructions 
only  about  Israel?"  the  commandments  of  the  Torah 
being  mostly  addressed  to  the  ''children  of  Israel" 
{e.g.  Exod.  3  15,  31  30,  33  5,  Lev.  24  2);^  whilst  in 
another  place  we  read,  with  reference  to  Deut.  7  7, 
that  God  says  to  Israel,  "Not  because  you  are 
greater  than  other  nations  did  I  choose  you,  nor  be- 
cause you  obey  my  injunctions  more  than  the  nations ; 
for  they  (the  nations)  follow  my  commandments, 
even  though  they  were  not  bidden  to  do  it,  and  also 
magnify  my  name  more  than  you,  as  it  is  said, '  From 
the  rising  of  the  sun,  even  unto  the  going  down  of  the 
same,  my  name  is  great  among  the  Gentiles'"  (Mai. 
I  11).^    The  answers  given  to  these  and  similar  ques- 

1  See  Singer,  p.  227,  and  Baer,  p.  247.  This  is  the  introductory  prayer 
to  the  original  liturgy  for  the  festivals.  In  olden  times  the  morning 
prayer  for  Sabbaths  began  with  the  same  prayer.  See  Zunz,  Die 
Ritus,  p.  13.  The  benediction  over  the  sanctification  cup  on  festivals 
opens  with  a  similar  formula. 

2  See  P.  K.,  16  a  seq.  and  Lev.  E.,  2  4. 

8  Tan.,  npr,  2.     See  also  Tan.  B.,  5  9  «. 


ELECTION   OF  ISRAEL 


59 


tlons  are  various.  According  to  some  Rabbis,  Israel's 
election  was,  as  it  would  seem,  predestined  before  the 
creation  of  the  world  (just  as  was  the  name  of  the 
Messiah),  and  sanctified  unto  the  name  of  God 
even  before  the  universe  was  called  into  existence/ 
Israel  was  there  before  the  world  was  created  and  is 
still  existing  now  and  will  continue  to  exist  in  the  fu- 
ture (by  reason  of  its  attachment  to  God).^  "The 
matter  is  to  be  compared  to  a  king  who  was  desiring 
to  build;  but  when  he  was  digging  for  the  purpose  of 
laying  the  foundations,  he  found  only  swamps  and 
mire.  At  last  he  hit  on  a  rock,  when  he  said,  'Here 
I  will  build.'  So,  too,  when  God  was  about  to  create 
the  world,  he  foresaw  the  sinful  generation  of  Enosh 
(when  man  began  to  profane  the  name  of  the  Lord), 
and  the  wicked  generations  of  the  deluge  (which  said 
unto  God,  'Depart  from  us'),  and  he  said,  'How  shall 
I  create  the  world  whilst  these  generations  are  certain 
to  provoke  me  (by  their  crimes  and  sins)  ?  '  But  when 
he  perceived  that  Abraham  would  one  day  arise,  he 
said,  '  Behold,  I  have  found  the  petra  on  which  to  build 
and  base  the  world.'  "  The  patriarch  Abraham  is  called 
the  rock  (Isa.  51  1.2);  and  so  Israel  are  called  the 
rocks  (Num.  33  9).^  They  are  an  obstinate  race 
and  their  faith  in  God  is  not  a  shifting  one,  and, 
as  a  later  author  expresses  it,  if  you  leave  them  no 

1  See  Gen.  R.,  i  4  and  S.  E.,  p.  i6o.  2  See  Tan.,  HD,  12. 

3  Yelamdenu  quoted  by  the  Yalkut,  Nu7n.,  §  766.     Cf.  Exod.  R,^ 
15  17.     See  also  below,  p.  173. 


6o       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

alternative  but  apostasy  or  crucifixion,  they  are  cer- 
tain to  prefer  the  latter.^  "Hence  the  thought  of 
Israel's  creation  preceded  the  creation  of  the  world." 
According  to  other  Rabbis,  Israel's  claim  to  the  elec- 
tion is  because  they  declared  God  as  king  on  the  Red 
Sea,  and  they  said,  "The  Lord  shall  reign  for  ever 
and  ever"  (Exod.  15  is).  According  to  others  again, 
it  was  on  account  of  their  having  accepted  the  yoke 
of  his  kingdom  on  Mount  Sinai.^  Why  did  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  choose  Israel?  Because  all  the 
other  nations  declared  the  Torah  unfit  and  refused  to 
accept  it,  whilst  Israel  agreed  and  chose  God  and  his 
Torah.^  Another  opinion  maintains  that  it  was  be- 
cause of  Israel's  humbleness  and  meekness  that  they 
were  found  worthy  of  becoming  the  chosen  people.^ 
This  may  perhaps  be  connected  with  the  view  expressed 
that  God's  reason  for  the  election  of  Israel  was  the 
fact  that  they  are  the  persecuted  ones,  all  the  great 
Biblical  characters  such  as  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
Moses,  David,  having  been  oppressed  and  especially 
chosen  by  God.^  From  another  place  it  would  seem 
that  it  is  the  holiness  of  Israel  which  made  them 
worthy  of  the  election.®  It  is  worth  noting,  however, 
that  the  passage  in  which  the  reason  of  Israel's  meek- 
ness is  advanced  concludes  with  the  reminder  that  God 

1  See  Exod.  R.,  42  9.     Cf.  Nachmanides  to  Deut.  7  7,  and  see  also 
Friedmann,  X\^^'^,  p.  12. 

2  See  P.  K.,  16  3  and  17  a  and  parallels. 

8  Num.  R.y  14  10.  *  Tan.  B.,  5  9  «.  ^  gee  Lev.  P.,  27  6. 

6  See  Si/re,  94  a  (§  97),  but  the  meaning  is  not  quite  clear. 


ELECTION  OF  ISRAEL  6l 

says,  "My  soul  volunteered  to  love  them,  though  they 
are  not  worthy  of  it,"  quoting  as  a  proof  from  the 
Scriptures  the  verse,  "I  will  love  them  freely"  (Hos. 
145).^  This  suggests  that  even  those  Rabbis  who  tried 
to  establish  Israel's  special  claim  on  their  exceptional 
merits  were  not  altogether  unconscious  of  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  the  reason  of  works  in  this  respect,  and  there- 
fore had  also  recourse  to  the  love  of  God,  which  is  not 
given  as  a  reward,  but  is  offered  freely.  When  an  old 
Roman  matron  challenged  R.  Jose  (b.  Chalafta)  with  the 
words, ''  Whomsoever  your  God  likes  he  brings  near  unto 
him  (elects),"  the  Rabbi  answered  her  that  God  indeed 
knows  whom  to  select :  in  him  whom  he  sees  good 
deeds  he  chooses  him  and  brings  him  near  unto  him.^ 
But  the  great  majority  of  the  Rabbis  are  silent  about 
merits,  and  attribute  the  election  to  a  mere  act  of 
grace  (or  love)  on  the  part  of  God.  And  he  is  repre- 
sented as  having  answered  Moses'  question  cited 
above,  "I  give  these  instructions  about  Israel  (and 
not  about  the  nations)  because  they  are  beloved  unto 
me  more  than  all  other  nations ;  for  they  are  my  peculiar 
treasure,  and  upon  them  I  did  set  my  love,  and  them 
I  have  chosen."^  "Praised  be  the  Omnipresent " 
(makom),  exclaims  the  Tanna  of  the  school  of  Elijah, 
"blessed  be  he,  who  chose  Israel  from  among  all  the 

1  Tan.  B.,  $  9  a, 

2  See  Midrash  Shemuel  B.^  8  2,  and  Num.  R.,  3  2,  text  and  commen- 
taries. 

3  Tan.,  KU^n  ^D,  8. 


62        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

nations,  and  made  them  verily  his  own,  and  called  them 
children  and  servants  unto  his  name  .  .  .  and  all  this 
because  of  the  love  with  which  he  loved  them,  and  the 
joy  with  which  he  rejoiced  in  them."  ^ 

It  must,  however,  be  noted  that  this  doctrine  of 
election  —  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  any  revealed 
religion  can  dispense  with  it  —  was  not  quite  of  so 
exclusive  a  nature  as  is  commonly  imagined.  For  it 
is  only  the  privilege  of  the  first-born  which  the  Rabbis 
claim  for  Israel,  that  they  are  the  first  in  God's  kingdom, 
not  the  exclusion  of  other  nations.  A  God  "who  had 
faith  in  the  world  when  he  created  it,"  ^  who  mourned 
over  its  moral  decay,  which  compelled  him  to  punish 
it  with  the  deluge,  as  a  father  mourns  over  the  death 
of  his  son,^  and  who,  but  for  their  sins,  longed  to  make 
his  abode  among  its  inhabitants,^  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed to  have  entirely  given  up  all  relations  with  the 
great  majority  of  mankind,  or  to  have  ceased  to  take 
any  concern  in  their  well-being.  '^  Though  his  good- 
ness, loving-kindness,  and  mercy  are  with  Israel,  his 
right  hand  is  always  stretched  forward  to  receive  all 
those  who  come  into  the  world,  ...  as  it  is  said, 
'Unto  me  every  knee  shall  bow,  every  tongue  shall 
swear'"  (Isa.  45  23).  For  this  confession  from  the 
Gentiles  the  Holy  One  is  waiting.^     In  fact,  it  did  not 

1  See  S.  E.,  p.  129  and  p.  127.     Cf.  Tan.  B.,  49  a. 

^  Si/re,  132  d. 

3  Gen.  jR.,  274.     Cf.  Sanhedrin,  108  a.     See  also  above,  p.  37. 

*  P.  R.,  27  b  and  parallels. 

s  See  Mechilta,  38  b.     Cf.  M.  T.,  100  1. 


ELECTION  OF  ISRAEL  63 

escape  the  composers  of  the  Liturgy  that  the  same 
prophet  by  whom  they  established  their  claim  to  elec- 
tion called  God  "the  King  of  the  Gentiles"  (Jer.  10  7), 
and  on  this  the  Rabbis  remark  that  God  said  to  the 
prophet,  "Thou  callest  me  the  King  of  the  Gentiles. 
Am  I  not  also  the  King  of  Israel?"^  The  seeming 
difference  again  between  "I  am  the  Lord,  the  God  of 
all  flesh"  (Jer.  32  27),  and  "the  Lord  of  hosts,  the 
God  of  Israel''  (ver.  15),  or  between  the  verse  "Three 
times  in  the  year  all  thy  males  shall  appear  before  the 
Lord  God''  (Exod.  23  17)  and  another  passage  en- 
joining the  same  law,  but  where  God  is  called  "the 
Lord  God,  the  God  of  Israel"  (34  23),  is  explained  by 
the  Rabbis  to  indicate  the  double  relation  of  God  to 
the  world  in  general,  and  to  Israel  in  particular.  He 
is  the  Lord  of  all  nations,  while  his  name  is  especially 
attached  to  Israel.^  Of  more  importance  is  the  inter- 
pretation given  to  Deut.  6  4,  "Hear,  O  Israel,"  etc. 

^M.  r.,931. 

2  See  Mechilta,  102  a,  and  Sifre,  73  a.  The  text  is  in  a  rather  cor- 
rupt state.  I  have  partly  followed  here  the  text  of  the  MUG.,  which 
on  Exod.  34  24  reads  :  h^T  *  D^lU  ^Xn  ^D  bl7  ^3K  j^K  inXH  ^32  nK 

ybv  b)n\'^^^  abii?  ^xn  b^  bv  ^:x  mbs*  irs  kh  * 'n  pnKn  ^sa- 

Friedmann's  suggestion  (in  Mechilta,  ibid.,  note  156)  that  the  original 
explanation  was  in  X^n  ''D  (not  D'"^Sii'!2)  is  thus  confirmed,  though, 
of  course,  the  Mechilta  of  the  compiler  of  the  MHG.  is  not  the 
same  as  ours.     In  Deut.  6  4,  the  same  Ms.  has  mxn^  'r\  "1X2K  ID  K2:V3 

ntrn  b^  \-ibx  'n  ^3K  rm  nax3  idd  xbm  ^-i^r  ^^  n»  b)rs'^^  \ibK 

both  verses  taken  from  Jeremiah.  Cf.  Introduction  to  Ruth  R.,  i  1. 
Cf.  Mechilta,  of  R.  Simon,  p.  164. 


64        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

(the  Shema),  which  runs  as  follows:  "He  is  our  God 
by  making  his  name  particularly  attached  to  us;  but 
he  is  also  the  one  God  of  all  mankind.  He  is  our  God 
in  this  world,  he  will  be  the  only  God  in  the  world  to 
come,  as  it  is  said,  And  the  Lord  shall  be  King  over 
all  the  earth;  in  that  day  there  shall  be  one  Lord, 
and  his  name  one"  (Zech.  14  9).^  For,  ''in  this  world, 
the  creatures,  through  the  insinuations  of  the  evil 
inclination,  have  divided  themselves  into  various 
tongues,  but  in  the  world  to  come  they  will  agree  with 
one  consent  to  call  only  on  his  name,  as  it  is  said, 
'For  then  I  will  restore  to  the  people  a  pure  language, 
that  they  may  all  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord,  to 
serve  him  with  one  consent'"  (Zeph.  3  9).^  Thus 
the  Shema  not  only  contains  a  metaphysical  state- 
ment (about  the  unity  of  God),  but  expresses  a  hope  and 
belief  —  for  everything  connected  with  this  verse  has 
a  certain  dogmatic  value  —  in  the  ultimate  universal 
kingdom  of  God.^ 

1  See  Mechilta  and  Sifre,  ibid.  I  follow  the  reading  of  the  31tS  np7 
to  Deut.  6  4,  which  seems  to  me  to  be  the  best  one,  and  is  also  sup- 
ported by  quotations  in  Mss.  Cf.  the  commentaries  of  Rashi,  Ibn 
Ezra,  Nachmanides,  and  Bachye  on  this  verse.  See  also  Mechilta,  44  a, 
text  and  note  20. 

2  Tan.y  n3,  19,  and  Tan.  B.y  i  28  b,  the  source  of  which  is  the 
Sifre,  See  Rashi's  commentary,  just  referred  to,  where  also  the  verse 
in  Zephaniah  is  cited. 

3  See  Rosh  Hashanah,  32  /5.,  and  Tosefta,  ibid.  213,  that  the  Shema 
is  taken  by  the  consent  of  the  majority  as  implying  mD^Xi.  Cf.  also 
below,  p.  96,  note  2,  and  p.  133,  note  2. 


THE   KINGDOM   OF    GOD    (INVISIBLE) 

The  concluding  words  of  the  last  chapter,  "The 
kingdom  of  God,"  derived  from  the  Shema,  have 
brought  us  to  a  theological  doctrine  described  by  some 
Rabbis  as  the  very  ''Truth  (or  essence)  of  the  Torah,"  ^ 
or  as  another  Rabbi  called  it,  "The  'weighty'  law." 
The  typical  expressions  in  the  Bible,  "  I  am  the  Lord 
your  God,"  or  "  I  am  the  Lord,"  are  also  thought  by 
the  Rabbis  to  suggest  the  idea  of  the  kingship.*^  It  is 
at  once  the  centre  and  the  circumference  of  Rabbinic 
divinity.  God  is  king  and  hence  claiming  authority; 
the  king  is  God,  and  therefore  the  manifestation  and 
assertion  of  this  authority  are  the  subject  of  Israel's 
prayers  and  solicitations.  The  conception  has,  of 
course,  its  origin  in  the  Bible,  in  which  God  appears 
so  often  as  a  king  with  his  various  attributes,  but  it  is 
the  Rabbinic  literature  where  we  first  meet  with  the 
term  "  kingdom  of  heaven,"  a  term,  as  it  seems,  less 
expressive  of  an  accomplished  fact  than  of  an  undefined 

^  See  Megillah,  i6  b,  and  the  commentary  of  R.  Chananel  to  that 
passage  as  reproduced  by  the  Tosafoth,  in  Gittin,  6  b,  and  Menachoth, 
32  b,  which  is  accepted  in  the  text  here.     Cf.  Kohut,  Aruch,  s.v.  fltoK. 

2  See  Mechilta  of  R,  Simon,  p.  30,  and  Sifre,  19  3. 
F  65 


66       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

and  indefinable  ideal,  and  hence  capable  of  a  wider  in- 
terpretation and  of  varying  aspects. 

For  our  present  purpose  it  will  be  best  to  view  it 
from  its  two  larger  aspects,  the  invisible  kingdom  and 
the  visible  kingdom. 

The  invisible  kingdom  is  mainly  spiritual,  expressive 
of  a  certain  attitude  of  mind,  and  possessing  a  more 
individual  character.  "He  who  is  desirous  to  receive 
upon  himself  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  let 
him  first  prepare  his  body,^  wash  his  hands,  lay  his 
Tephilin  (phylacteries),  read  the  Shema,  and  say  his 
prayers."  Should  he  happen  to  be  on  a  journey,  then, 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom, 
he  must  "stop  still  and  direct  his  heart  to  heaven  in 
awe,  trembling,  and  devotion,  and  (in  the  thought)  of 
unifying  the  Name,  and  so  read  the  Shema'' ;  after 
which  he  may  say  the  rest  of  the  prayers  on  his  way.^ 
The  worshipper  is  even  bidden  to  dwell  so  long  in  his 
devotional  attitude  of  mind  when  uttering  the  words 
"only  one"  (^n^)  as  to  declare  God  king  in  all  the 
four  corners  of  the  world.^  Communion  with  God  by 
means  of  prayer  through  the  removal  of  all  intruding 
elements  between  man  and  his  Maker,  and  through  the 
implicit  acceptance  of  God's  unity  as  well  as  an  un- 

1  Berachoth,  14  <5,  15  a.  The  cleansing  here  has  nothing  to  do  with 
priestly  ablutions ;  it  means  simply  to  prepare  oneself  in  such  a  way 
as  to  be  able  to  concentrate  all  one's  mind  during  the  prayer  without 
any  disturbance.     Cf.  Jer.  Berachoth,  4  c. 

2  Tan.  lb  "jp,    I.     Cf.  Tan.  B.,  i  29  a,  text  and  notes. 

3  Berachoth,  13  b. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD  (INVISIBLE)  67 

conditional  surrender  of  mind  and  heart  to  his  holy 
will,  which  the  love  of  God  expressed  in  the  Shema 
implies,  this  is  what  is  understood  by  the  receiving  of 
the  kingdom  of  God.  *'What  is  the  section  of  the 
Law  where  there  is  to  be  found  the  acceptance  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven"  to  the  exclusion  of  the  worship 
of  idols?  ask  the  Rabbis.  The  answer  given  is, 
''This  is  the  Shema.^^  ^  But  under  the  word  idols 
are  included  all  other  beings  besides  God.  "Some 
nations  confess  their  allegiance  to  Michael,  others  to 
Gabriel;  but  Israel  chose  only  the  Lord:  as  it  is 
said,  'The  Lord  is  my  portion,  saith  my  soul'  (Lam. 

3  24).  This  is  the  meaning  of  'Hear,  O  Israel,'"  etc.^ 
The  Shema  also  implies  the  exclusion  of  any  human 
mediator,  Israel  desiring,  whether  on  earth  or  in 
heaven,  none  but  God.^  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the 
scriptural  words,  "  there  is  none  else  beside  thee  "  (Deut. 

4  35),  and  "  The  Lord,  he  is  God,  in  heaven  above 
and  the  earth  beneath,  there  is  none  else  "  (Deut.  4  39), 
are  declared  to  imply  kingship.^ 

What  love  of  God  means  we  learn  from  the  inter- 
pretation given  to  the  words,  "And  thou  shalt  love 
the  Lord  with  all  thy  heart,  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with 
all  thy  might"  (Deut.  6  5).  ''Love  God  with  all 
thy    desires,  even    the    evil    Yezer    (that    is    to    say, 

1  Si/re,  34  3  V'V  nS  taU^bl  tr^'tt  b^^'p.  Cf.  Berachoth,  1 3  a,  and  Deut. 
R.,  2  31,  nnK  'n  irnbK  'T\  W^'^  niD'^D  ^Tn''^\  See  also  Sifre,  80  a, 
that  this  division  of  the  Shema  addresses  itself  to  the  individual,  Tr\'h. 

2  Deut.  R.,  2  34.  3  DgJ^f^  ^^^  ^-^^-^^^  §  ^3.     Cf.  Ag.  Ber.,  ch.  27. 
*  Rosh  Hashanah^  32  b. 


68        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

make  thy  earthly  passions  and  fleshly  desires  instru- 
mental in  the  service  of  God),  so  that  there  maybe  no 
corner  in  thy  heart  divided  against  God."  Again, 
"Love  him  with  thy  heart's  last  drop  of  blood,  and  be 
prepared  to  give  up  thy  soul  for  God,  if  he  requires  it. 
Love  him  under  all  conditions,  both  in  times  of  bliss 
and  happiness,  and  in  times  of  distress  and  misfortune.* 
For  every  measure  he  metes  out  to  thee,  praise  and 
thank  him  exceedingly."  ^  In  a  similar  v^ay  the  words, 
"To  love  the  Lord  your  God"  (Deut.  ii  is),  are 
explained  to  mean,  "Say  not,  I  will  study  the  Torah 
with  the  purpose  of  being  called  Sage  or  Rabbi,  or  to 
acquire  fortune,  or  to  be  rewarded  for  it  in  the  world 
to  come;  but  do  it  for  the  sake  of  thy  love  to  God, 
though  the  glory  will  come  in  the  end."  ^  It  is  especially 
the  love  of  self  that  is  incompatible  with  the  love  of 
God  or  with  the  real  belief  in  the  unity.  On  this 
point  the  mediaeval  philosophers  and  mystics  dwell 
with  special  emphasis,  of  which  the  following  may 
serve  as  specimens:  R.  Bachye  Ibn  Bakudah,  in  his 
"Duties  of  the  Heart":  "The  things  detrimental  to 
the  (belief)  in  the  Unity  are  manifold.  .  .  .  Among 
them  is  the  disguised  polytheism  (or  providing  God 
with  a  companion),  as,  for  instance,  the  religious  hy- 
pocrisy of  various  kinds  (being  in  reality  worship  of 

1  Sifrey  73  a.     Cf .  Berachoth,  6i  b  and  parallels. 

2  Mishnah  Berachoth,  g  5. 

3  Si/re,  79  ^,  to  be  supplemented  and  corrected  by  the  parallel,  84  3. 
Cf.  JVedarim,  62  a.  See  also  Nachmanides'  Commentary  to  the  Pen- 
tateuch to  Deut.  6  5.     See  also  below,  p.  162. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  COD   {INVISIBLE)  69 

man  instead  of  worship  of  God)  or  when  man  combines 
with  the  worship  of  God  the  devotion  to  his  own  gain,  as 
it  is  said,  'There  shall  be  no  strange  God  in  thee'  (Ps. 
81  10),  on  which  our  teachers  remarked  that  it  meant 
the  strange  god  in  the  very  body  of  man.  .  .  ."  ^  R. 
Meir  Ibn  Gabbai  (born  1420),  in  commenting  on 
Deut.  II  13,  rightly  remarks,  "It  is  clear  from  these 
words  that  he  who  serves  God  with  any  personal  object 
in  view  loves  none  but  himself,  the  Most  High  having 
no  share  in  his  service ;  whilst  the  original  design  was 
that  man  should  perform  his  religious  duties  only  for 
God's  sake,  which  alone  means  the  establishing  of  the 
Unity  of  the  Great  Name  both  in  action  and  in  thought. 
...  It  is  the  man  with  such  a  purpose  (aiming 
towards  bringing  about  the  perfect  unity  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  thought  of  self)  who  is  called  the  lover  of  God."  ^ 
Furthermore,  R.  Moses  Chayim  Luzzatto,  a  mystic  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  speaking  of  the  function 
of  love  in  religion,  says:  "The  meaning  of  this  love  is 
that  man  should  be  longing  and  yearning  after  the 
nearness  of  him  (God),  blessed  be  he,  and  striving  to 
reach  his  holiness  (in  the  same  manner)  as  he  would 
pursue  any  object  for  which  he  feels  a  strong  passion. 
He  should  feel  that  bliss  and  delight  in  mentioning  his 
name,  in  uttering  his  praises  and  in  occupying  himself 
with  the  words  of  the  Torah  which  a  lover  feels  towards 
the  wife  of   his  youth,  or  the  father  towards  his  only 

1  See  ""'S  nin\i  nr;r  nnnbn  main. 

2  vs^'pr^  r\y\:i,':s,  Section  mn^  ch.  28. 


70        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

son,  finding  delight  in  merely  holding  converse  about 
them.  .  .  .  The  man  who  loves  his  Maker  with  a 
real  love  requires  no  persuasion  and  inducement  for 
his  service.  On  the  contrary,  his  heart  will  (on  its 
own  account)  attract  him  to  it.  .  .  .  This  is  indeed 
the  degree  (in  the  service  of  God)  to  be  desired,  to 
which  our  earlier  saints,  the  saints  of  the  Most  High, 
attained  to,  as  King  David  said,  'As  the  heart  panteth 
after  the  water  brooks,  so  panteth  my  soul  after  thee, 
O  God.  My  soul  thirsteth  for  God,  for  the  living  God,' 
and  as  the  prophet  said,  'The  desire  of  our  soul  is  to 
thy  name  and  to  the  remembrance  of  thee'  (Is.  26  8). 
This  love  must  not  be  a  love  'depending  on  some- 
thing,' that  is,  that  man  should  not  love  God  as  his 
benefactor,  making  him  rich  and  prosperous,  but  it 
must  be  like  the  love  of  a  son  to  his  father,  a  real 
natural  love  ...  as  it  is  said,  'Is  he  not  thy  father 
who  has  bought  thee?'"  ^ 

"Her  yoke  is  a  golden  ornament,"  said  Jesus,  the 
son  of  Sirach,  of  Wisdom  He  considered  it  as  a 
thing  "glorious,"  and  invited  mankind  to  put  their 
necks  under  her  yoke.  The  Rabbis  likewise  looked 
upon  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  God  and  the  yoke  of 
the  Torah  as  the  badge  of  real  freedom.  "And  if  thou 
hast  brought  thy  neck  under  the  yoke  of  the  Torah  she 
will  watch  over  thee,"  in  both  worlds.^  The  yoke  of 
this  kingdom  was  not  felt  as  a  burden.     If  the  Rabbis 

1  See  Luzzatto,  DntT^  nb'Df2,  Warsaw,  1884,  p.  27  b. 

2  See  Ecclus.  6  so,  51  17,  and  26  b  (Hebrew),  and  cf.  Kinyan  Torah 
2;  Erubin^  54  <2;   and  M,  T.,  2  11. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD   (INVISIBLE)  71 

had  any  dread,  it  was  lest  it  might  be  removed  from 
them.  "I  shall  not  hearken  unto  you,"  said  one  of 
them  to  his  disciples,  who  on  a  certain  joyous  occasion 
wanted  him  to  avail  himself  of  his  legal  privilege,  and 
omit  the  saying  of  the  Shema;  "I  will  not  remove  from 
myself  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  even  for  a 
single  moment."  ^  Even  to  be  under  the  wrath  of  this 
yoke  is  a  bliss.  When  one  Rabbi  quoted  the  verse  from 
Ezekiel,  "As  I  live,  saith  the  Lord  God,  surely  with 
a  mighty  hand,  and  with  a  stretched-out  arm,  and  with 
fury  poured  out,  will  I  be  king  over  you"  (20  33), 
his  colleague  answered  to  the  effect.  Let  the  merciful 
continue  his  wrath  with  us,  and  redeem  (and  reign 
over  us  against  our  will).^  What  the  typical  Rabbi 
longed  for  was  that  sublime  moment  when  the  daily 
professions  of  a  long  life  might  be  confirmed  by  act. 
When  R.  Akiba,  who  died  the  death  of  a  martyr,  was 
in  the  hands  of  his  torturers,  he  joyfully  "received 
upon  himself  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (by 
reciting  the  Shema).  When  asked  why  he  did  so,  he 
answered,  'All  my  life  I  have  recited  this  verse  ('And 
thou  shalt  love,'  etc.),  and  have  longed  for  the  hour 
when  I  could  fulfil  it.  I  loved  him  with  all  my  heart, 
I  loved  him  with  all  my  fortunes.  Now  I  have  the 
opportunity  to  love  him  with  all  my  soul.  Therefore 
I  repeat  this  verse  in  joyfulness.'     And  thus  he  died."  ^ 

1  Mishnah,  Berachoth,  2  5.     Cf.  Rabbinowicz,  Varia  Lectiones  a.  I. 

2  Sankedrin,  105  a.     Cf.  Rashi,  a.  I. 

3  See  /e}\  Berachoth,  14  b.     piiT^  means  probably  tortured,  and 
has  to  be  supplied  by  the  parallel  from  Babh,  Berachoth,  61  b. 


72        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

*  There  is  no  indication  of  despair  in  Akiba's  death,  but 
also  no  thought  of  a  crown  of  martyrdom  awaiting  him 
for  this  glorious  act/  He  simply  fulfils  a  command- 
ment of  love,  and  he  rejoices  in  fulfilling  it.  It  is 
"a  love  unto  death,"  ^  suffering  no  separation. 
*' Though  God,"  says  Israel,  "brings  me  into  distress 
and  embitters  me,  he  shall  lie  betwixt  my  breasts,"  ^ 
and  to  be  always  in  contact  with  the  object  of  his  love 
is  Israel's  constant  prayer.  "Unite  our  hearts," 
runs  an  old  Rabbinic  prayer,  "to  fear  thy  name; 
remove  us  from  all  thou  hatest,  and  bring  us  near  to 
all  thou  lovest,  and  be  merciful  unto  us  for  thy  name's 
sake."  ^  Even  fear  is  only  another  expression  with 
them  for  love.  "I  feared  in  my  joy,  I  rejoiced  in  my 
fear,  and  my  love  prevailed  over  all."  ^ 

Still  more  distinctly,  though  not  more  emphatically, 
is  this  thought  of  the  constant  union  with  God  and  the 
constant  love  of  God  expressed  in  the  later  Jewish 
authors,  with  whom  it  takes  a  certain  mystical  turn. 
"What  is  the  essence  of  love  to  God?"  says  R.  Bachye 

1  The  words  in  Aboth.,  4  7,  "  Make  not  (of  the  Torah)  a  crown,"  are 
explained  by  R.  Samuel  de  Ozedo,  to  mean  the  crown  of  the  saints  in 
the  after-life ;  any  thought  of  reward,  whether  material  or  spiritual, 
whether  in  this  world  or  in  the  next,  being  unworthy  of  the  real 
worshipper  of  God.  It  may,  of  course,  be  questioned  whether  this 
was  the  real  meaning  of  the  Tanna's  saying  ;  but  it  is  highly  charac- 
teristic of  the  feelings  of  the  Talmudical  Jew  in  this  respect. 

2  Mechilta,  37  a. 

8  See  Shabbath,  88  b,  on  the  interpretation  of  Song  of  Songs  i  13. 
Cf.  Cant.  R.  to  this  verse. 

'^Jer,  Berachothy  7  a'.  ^  See  S.  E.,  p.  3. 


THE  KINGDOM   OF  GOD   (INVISIBLE)  73 

Ibn  Bakudah  mentioned  above.  "It  is  the  longing  of 
the  soul  for  an  immediate  union  with  him,  to  be 
absorbed  in  his  superior  light.  For  the  soul,  being  a 
simple  spiritual  substance,  is  naturally  attracted  towards 
spiritual  beings.  And  when  she  becomes  aware  of  any- 
being  that  could  give  her  added  strength  and  light,  she 
devises  means  how  to  reach  it,  and  clings  to  it  in  her 
thought  .  .  .  longing  and  desiring  after  it.  This  is  the 
aim  of  her  love.  .  .  .  And  v/hen  the  soul  has  realised 
God's  omnipotence  and  his  greatness,  she  prostrates 
herself  in  dread  before  his  greatness  and  glory,  and  re- 
mains in  this  state  till  she  receives  his  assurance,  when 
her  fear  and  anxiety  cease.  Then  she  drinks  of  the  cup 
of  love  to  God.  She  has  no  other  occupation  than  his 
service,  no  other  thought  than  of  him,  no  other  intent 
than  the  accomplishment  of  his  will,  and  no  other 
utterance  than  his  praise.  If  he  deal  kindly  with  her 
she  will  thank  him,  if  he  bring  affliction  on  her  she  will 
submit  willingly,  and  her  trust  in  God  and  her  love  of 
God  will  always  increase.  So  it  was  told  of  one  of  the 
saints  that  he  used  to  rise  up  in  the  night  and  say: 
My  God,  thou  hast  brought  upon  me  starvation  and 
penury.  Into  the  depth  of  darkness  thou  hast  driven 
me,  and  thy  might  and  strength  hast  thou  taught  me. 
But  even  if  they  burn  me  in  fire,  only  the  more  will  I 
love  thee  and  rejoice  in  thee.  For  so  said  the  prophet, 
*And  thou  shalt  love  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart.'"  ^ 

1  «''D  'n  nSHK  nyt:?  mnsbn  mmn.     Of  one  of  the   exiles   from 
Spain  —  who  was  exposed  by  the  captain  of  the  vessel,  in  which  he 


74        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

R.  Eliezer  of  Worms  writes  to  the  effect :  The  meaning 
of  this  love  is  that  the  soul  is  full  of  the  love  of  God 
and  attached  by  the  bonds  of  love  in  joyfulness  and 
gladness  of  the  heart.  He  is  not  one  who  serves  his 
Master  under  compulsion.  His  love  is  burning  in  his 
heart  urging  him  to  serve  God,  and  he  rejoices  so  much 
to  accomplish  the  will  of  the  Creator  even  if  they 
would  seek  to  prevent  him  from  it.  .  .  .  He  does  not 
serve  him  for  his  own  profit  or  for  his  own  glory.  He 
says  to  himself,  "  How,  was  I  chosen  and  created  to  be 
a  servant  to  the  King  of  Glory,  I,  who  am  despised 
and  rejected  of  men,  I,  who  am  to-day  here  and  to- 
morrow in  the  grave?"  When  the  soul  sinks  in  the 
depths  of  awe,  the  spark  of  the  love  of  the  heart  breaks 
out  in  flames  and  the  inward  joy  increases  .  .  .  the 
men  of  divine  wisdom  think  with  joy  of  the  heart  of 
accomplishing  the  will  of  their  Creator,  of  doing  all  his 
commandments  with  all  their  hearts.  Such  lovers  think 
not  of  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  nor  are  they  con- 
cerned in  the  idle  pastimes  of  their  wives  and  families. 
They  desire  only  to  accomplish  the  will  of  God  and  to 
lead  others  to  righteousness,  to  sanctify  his  name  and 
to  deliver  up  his  soul  for  the  sake  of  his  love  as  Abraham 

had  fled  with  his  family,  on  a  deserted  island  —  something  similar  is 
reported.  When  his  wife  died  from  exhaustion,  and  his  two  children 
perished  by  famine,  and  he  himself  was  in  a  fainting  state,  he  ex- 
claimed: "O  Lord  of  the  world,  great  are  the  afflictions  thou  hast 
brought  upon  me,  tempting  me  to  leave  the  faith.  But  thou  knowest 
that    I    shall    not    solve    thy   covenant    (with    us)    until     death," 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD   (INVISIBLE)  75 

did.  .  .  .  They  exalt  not  themselves,  they  speak  no  idle 
word,  they  see  not  the  face  of  woman,  they  hear  their 
reproach  and  answer  not.  All  their  thoughts  are  with 
their  God.  They  sing  sweet  songs  to  him,  and  their 
whole  frame  of  mind  is  glowing  in  the  fire  of  their  love 
to  him.^  An  anonymous  author  (probably  about  the 
same  period)  says,  ''Those  who  believe  that  works  are 
the  main  thing  are  mistaken.  The  most  important 
matter  is  the  heart.  Work  and  words  are  only  intended 
as  preparatory  actions  to  the  devotion  of  the  heart. 
The  essence  of  all  the  commandments  is  to  love  God 
with  all  the  heart.  The  glorious  ones  (i.e.  the  angels) 
fulfil  none  of  the  613  commandments.  They  have 
neither  mouth  nor  tongue,  and  yet  they  are  absorbed 
in  the  glory  of  God  by  means  of  thought."  ^  R.  Meir 
Ibn  Gabbai  (quoted  above)  expresses  the  same  thought 
in  words  to  the  effect :  The  love  of  the  Only  Name 
forms  the  highest  attainment  (in  the  scale)  of  the  service 
of  the  Sanctuary.  For  the  perfect  adoration  worship 
demanded  of  the  true  worshipper  is  the  service  of  the 
Unity,  that  is,  the  unification  of  the  glorious  and  the 
Only  Name.  But  the  essence  of  Love  is  the  true 
Unity,  and  the  true  Unity  is  what  is  termed  Love.  .  .  . 
And  behold,  the  soul  comes  into  the  body  from  the  abode 

1  See  R.  Eliezer  of  Worms,  nnnK.I  t:?mir  Hpll  and  D^n'Dn.l  "ISD, 
Parma,  §  300.  The  book  tlpll  is  a  casuistic  book  on  questions  of  the 
Law.     See  also  Dr.  Giidemann,  Culturgeschichte,  I  I60. 

2  Communicated  by  Dr.  Gudemann,  Culturgeschichte,  I  I60,  from  a 
Munich  Ms.,  D^^HH  nSD,  emanating,  as  it  seems,  from  the  Franco- 
German  school. 


76       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

of  Love  and  Unity,  therefore  she  is  longing  for  their 
reahsation  and  by  loving  the  Beloved  One  (God),  she 
maintains  the  heavenly  relations  as  if  they  had  never 
been  interrupted  through  this  earthly  existence.^ 

These  instances,  which  could  be  multiplied  by  nu- 
merous other  extracts  from  the  later  devotional  litera- 
ture and  hymnology,  suffice  to  show  that  there  are 
enough  individualistic  elements  in  Judaism  to  satisfy 
all  the  longings  of  the  religionist  whose  bent  lies  to- 
wards mysticism.  And  just  as  every  Israelite  ''could 
always  pour  out  his  private  griefs  and  joys  before 
him  who  fashioneth  the  hearts,"  so  was  he  able  to 
satisfy  his  longing  for  perfect  communion  with  his  God 
(who  is  'nigh  to  all  them  who  call  upon  him')  by 
means  of  simple  love,  without  the  aid  of  any  forcible 
means. 

It  must,  however,  be  remarked  that  this  satisfying 
the  needs  of  anybody  and  everybody  is  not  the  highest 
aim  which  Judaism  set  before  itself.  Altogether,  one 
might  venture  to  express  the  opinion  that  the  now 
fashionable  test  of  determining  the  worth  of  a  religion 
by  its  capability  to  supply  the  various  demands  of  the 
great  market  of  the  believers  has  something  low  and 
mercenary  about  it.  Nothing  less  than  a  good  old 
honest  heathen  pantheon  would  satisfy  the  crazes  and 
cravings  of  our  present  pampered  humanity,  with  its 
pagan   reminiscences,   its    metaphysical    confusion    of 

1  ^-rpT]  n-nni?,  Section  iin^  ch.  28.   Ti^^Kn  "limn  !ir^:i?  nanxrri 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD   (INVISIBLE)  77 

languages  and  theological  idiosyncrasies.  True  religion 
is  above  these  demands.  It  is  not  a  Jack-of-all-trades, 
meaning  monotheism  to  the  philosopher,  pluralism  to 
the  crowd,  some  mysterious  Nothing  to  the  agnostic, 
Pantheism  to  the  poet,  service  of  man  to  the  hero- 
worshipper.  Its  mission  is  just  as  much  to  teach  the 
world  that  there  are  false  gods  as  to  bring  it  nearer  to 
the  true  one.  Abraham,  the  friend  of  God,  who  was 
destined  to  become  the  first  winner  of  souls,  began  his 
career,  according  to  the  legend,  with  breaking  idols, 
and  it  is  his  particular  glory  to  have  been  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  whole  world. ^  Judaism  means  to  convert 
the  world,  not  to  convert  itself.  It  will  not  die  in 
order  not  to  live.  It  disdains  a  victory  by  defeating 
itself  in  giving  up  its  essential  doctrines  and  its  most 
vital  teaching.  It  has  confidence  in  the  world;  it 
hopes,  it  prays,  and  waits  patiently  for  the  great  day 
when  the  world  will  be  ripe  for  its  acceptance. 

Nor  is  the  individual  —  the  pet  of  modern  theology  — 
with  his  heartburnings  and  mystical  longings,  of  such 
importance  that  Judaism  can  spend  its  whole  strength 
on  him.  De  Wette  was  certainly  guilty  of  a  gross 
exaggeration  when  he  maintained  "that  all  mysticism 
tends  to  a  more  refined  lust,  to  a  feasting  upon  the 
feelings"  —  something  like  our  conceited  culture  dandy, 
who  is  eaten  up  with  the  admiration  of  his  vague  de- 
nials and  half-hearted  affirmations.     For  undoubtedly 

1  See  Gen.  R.,  38  13,  and  42  8  (the  explanations  of  R.  Judah  to  ''^^17.1) ; 
cf.  Beer,  Leben  Abrahams,  p.  8  seq. 


78        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

every  religion  can  boast  of  saintly  mystics  who  did 
much  good  service  to  their  own  creed  and  to  the  world 
at  large.  Indeed,  no  creed  worthy  of  the  name  could 
or  would  ever  dispense  with  that  sprinkling  of  mystics 
representing  the  deeper  elements  of  saintliness  and  re- 
ligious dehcacy.  But  they  were  of  little  use  either  to 
themselves  or  to  the  world  when  they  emancipated 
themselves  from  the  control  of  the  law.  For  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  mystic  has  not  always  shown  himself 
very  trustworthy  in  his  mission.  Instead  of  being  ab- 
sorbed by  God,  he  has  absorbed  God  in  himself.  His 
tendency  towards  antinomianism,  and  to  regard  law  and 
works  as  beneath  him,  is  also  a  sad  historic  fact.  But 
the  worst  feature  about  him  is  his  egoism,  the  king- 
dom of  God  within  him  never  passing  beyond  the 
limits  of  his  insignificant  self,  who  is  the  exclusive 
object  of  his  own  devotions.  The  Rabbis  often  speak 
of  the  reward  awaiting  the  righteous  after  their  death 
as  consisting,  not  in  material  pleasures,  but  in  feeding 
on,  or  revelling  in,  the  divine  glory.  ^  But  such  a  vision 
"of  the  blissfulness  of  the  spirit"  is  wisely  confined  to 
the  next  world,  when  the  Great  Sabbath  will  break 
upon  us,  when  all  things  will  be  at  rest.  In  this  world, 
"the  world  of  activity,"  the  righteous  have  no  such 
peace;  they  have  to  labour  and  to  suffer  with  their 
fellow-creatures;  and  even  such  a  sublime  quietism  as 
revelling  in  God  may,  without  strong  control,  too  easily 
degenerate  into  a  sort  of  religious  epicureanism.     It 

1  See  Berachoth,  17a  and  parallels. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD   {INVISIBLE)  79 

would  seem  as  though  it  were  with  an  eye  to  such 
"idle  spirituaUty,"  that  with  reference  to  Deut.  6  5, 
''  And  thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy 
heart/'  the  Rabbis  make  the  remark,  ''  I  know  not  in 
which  way  they  should  love  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he,"  therefore  the  Scripture  continues,  "And  these 
words  which  I  command  thee  this  day,  shall  be  in 
thine  heart "  (Deut.  6  6),  which  means,  "  Place  these 
words  upon  thy  heart,  for  through  them  thou  wilt  learn 
to  know  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  and  cleave  unto 
his  ways."  ^  And  "  these  ways,"  as  we  shall  see,  con- 
cern this  world.  The  best  control  is  thus  to  work  to- 
wards establishing  the  visible  kingdom  of  God  in  the 
present  world.  This,  the  highest  goal  religion  can 
strive  to  reach,  Judaism  never  lost  sight  of.  It  always 
remained  the  cherished  burden  of  its  most  ardent 
prayers  and  the  object  of  its  dearest  hopes. 

1  See  Sifre,  74  a. 


VI 

THE   VISIBLE   KINGDOM   (UNIVERSAL) 

The  visible  kingdom  may  be  viewed  from  two  aspects, 
national  and  universal.  An  attempt  will  be  made  to 
give  the  outlines  of  these  Aspects  as  they  are  to  be 
traced  in  Rabbinic  literature. 

"Before  God  created  the  world,"  we  read  in  the 
Chapters  of  R.  Eliezer,  "there  was  none  but  God  and 
his  great  name."  The  great  name  is  the  tetragram- 
maton,  the  name  expressive  of  his  being,  the  "I  am." 
All  other  names,  or  rather  attributes,  such  as  Lord, 
Almighty,  Judge,  Merciful,  indicative  of  his  relation 
to  the  world  and  its  government,  had  naturally  no 
meaning  before  the  world  was  created.  The  act  of 
creation  again  is  a  manifestation  of  God's  holy  will 
and  goodness;  but  it  requires  a  responsive  goodness 
on  the  part  of  those  whom  he  intends  to  create.  For 
"whatever  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  created  in 
his  world,  he  created  but  for  his  glory,  for  it  is  said, 
Every  one  that  is  called  by  my  name :  for  I  have  created 
him  for  my  glory.  I  have  formed  him;  yea,  I  have 
made  him  (Is.  437),  and  again  it  is  said.  The  Lord 
shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever  (Exod.  15  is)."  "The 
Lord  has  made  everything  for  himself"  (Prov.  16 4), 

80 


THE   VISIBLE  KINGDOM  (UNIVERSAL)  8l 

and  heaven  and  earth,  angels  and  planets,  waters  and 
herbs  and  trees  and  birds  and  beasts,  all  join  in  the 
great  chorus  of  praise  to  God.  But  the  attribute  of 
kingship  apparently  does  not  come  into  full  operation 
before  the  creation  of  man.  Hence,  "when  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  consulted  the  Torah  as  to  the 
creation  of  the  world,  she  answered,  'Master  of  the 
world  (to  be  created),  if  there  be  no  host,  over  whom 
will  the  king  reign,  and  if  there  be  no  peoples  praising 
him,  where  is  the  glory  of  the  king?'  The  Lord  of  the 
world  heard  the  answer,  and  it  pleased  him."  ^ 

To  effect  this  object,  the  angels  already  in  existence 
did  not  suffice.  "When  God  had  created  the  world," 
one  of  the  later  Midrashim  records,  "he  produced  on 
the  second  day  the  angels  with  their  natural  inclination 
to  do  good,  and  an  absolute  inability  to  commit  sin. 
On  the  following  days  he  created  the  beasts  with  their 
exclusively  animal  desires.  But  he  was  pleased  with 
neither  of  these  extremes.  *If  the  angels  follow  my 
will,'  said  God,  'it  is  only  on  account  of  their  in- 
ability to  act  in  the  opposite  direction.  I  shall,  there- 
fore, create  man,  who  will  be  a  combination  of  both 
angel  and  beast,  so  that  he  will  be  able  to  follow  either 
the  good  or  the  evil  inclination.'"  ^    His  evil  deeds  will 

1  See  P.  R.  E.,  ch.  3.  The  thought  of  the  world,  and  especially  man, 
having  been  created  for  God's  glory,  is  very  common  in  Jewish  literature. 
Cf.  A.  R.  N.,  67  b,  text  and  notes  at  the  end;  Tan.  n^ITSnn,  i;  Exod. 
R.  17:  1  and  M.  7'.,  148  5. 

2  Quoted  in  the  p''DD,  §  53.  Cf.  Tan.  B.,  Introduction,  76  b.  Cf. 
below,  p.  261,  note  i. 

G 


82        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

place  him  below  the  level  of  the  brutes,  whilst  his  noble 
aspirations  will  raise  him  above  the  angels. 

In  short,  it  is  not  slaves,  heaven-born  though  they 
may  be,  that  can  make  the  kingdom  glorious.  God 
wants  to  reign  over  free  agents,  and  it  is  their  obedience 
which  he  desires  to  obtain.  Man  becomes  thus  the 
centre  of  creation,  for  he  is  the  only  object  in  which  the 
kingship  could  come  into  full  expression.  Hence  it  is, 
as  it  would  seem,  that  on  the  sixth  day,  after  God  had 
finished  all  his  work,  including  man,  that  God  became 
king  over  the  world.* 

Adam  the  First  invites  the  whole  creation  over  which 
he  is  master  "to  clothe  God  with  majesty  and  strength," 
and  to  declare  him  King,  and  he  and  all  the  other  beings 
join  in  the  song,  "  The  Lord  reigneth,  he  is  clothed  with 
majesty,"  which  forms  now  the  substance  of  the  93d 
Psalm. ^  God  can  now  rejoice  in  his  world.  This  is 
the  world  inhabited  by  man,  and  when  he  viewed  it, 
as  it  appeared  before  him  in  all  its  innocence  and 
beauty,  he  exclaimed,  "  My  world,  O  that  thou  wouldst 
always  look  as  graceful  as  thou  lookest  now."  "  Beau- 
tiful is  the  world,"  a  Rabbi  exclaims,  "  blessed  be  the 
Omnipresent  who  shaped  it  and  created  it  by  his 
word.  Blessed  art  thou  (world)  in  which  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  is  king."  ^ 

1  See  Rosh  Hashanah,  31  ^,  assuming,  of  course,  that  the  words 
TVh]2  "^SXil  on  the  second  day  came  into  the  text  by  a  clerical  error. 
Cf.  Rabbinowicz,  Variae  Lectiones^  al.  A.  R.  iV.,  Appendix  76  b,  and 
the  Mishna,  ed.  Lowe,  191  a.  2  p,  j^,  E.,  ch,  11. 

*  Gen.  R.,  9  4.  See  also  Exod.  R.,  15  22.  Cf.  also  JVum.  R.,  101, 
that  God  longed  to  create  the  world. 


THE   VISIBLE  KINGDOM  {UNIVERSAL)  83 

This  state  of  gracefulness  did  not  last  long.  The 
free  agent  abused  his  liberty,  and  sin  came  into  the 
world,  disfiguring  both  man  and  the  scene  of  his 
activity.  Rebellion  against  God  was  characteristic  of 
the  generations  that  followed.  Their  besetting  sin,  espe- 
cially that  of  the  generation  of  the  Deluge,  which  had 
to  be  wiped  out  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  was  that 
they  said,  "There  is  no  judge  in  the  world,"  it  being 
"  an  automaton."  ^  They  were  the  reverse  of  the  faith- 
ful of  later  generations,  that  proclaimed  God's  govern- 
ment and  kingship  in  the  world  every  day.^  They 
maintained  that  the  world  was  forsaken  by  God,  and 
said  unto  God,  "  Depart  from  us,  for  we  desire  not  the 
knowledge  of  thy  ways"  (Job  21  m).^  The  name  of 
God  was  profaned  by  its  transfer  to  abominations 
(or  idols),  and  violence  and  vice  became  the  order  of 
the  day."*  By  these  sins  God  was  removed  from  the 
world  in  which  he  longed  to  fix  his  abode,  and  the 
reign  of  righteousness  and  justice  ceased.  The  world 
was  thus  thrown  into  a  chaotic  state  of  darkness  for 
twenty  generations,  from  Adam  to  Abraham,  all  of  them 
continuing  to  provoke  God.^  With  Abraham  the  light 
returned,^  for  he  was  the  first  to  call  God  master 
(JHH),  a  name  which  declares  God  to  be  the  Ruler  of  the 

1  A.  R.  N.,  47  b  and  parallels.      M.  T.,  i  21. 

2  See  M.  T.  ibid. 

3  See  Sanhedrin,  108  a.  Cf.  also  P.  R.  E.,  ch.  24,  with  special  ref- 
erence to  the  generation  of  Nimrod,  who  threw  off  the  yoke  of  heaven. 

*  See  Mechilta,  67  b.     See  also  Pseudo-Jonathan,  Gen.  4  26. 

5  See  Aboth^  5  1,  and  commentaries.  ^  See  Gen.  R.,  3  3. 


84       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

world,  and  concerned  in  the  actions  of  men/  Abraham 
was  also  the  first  great  missionary  in  the  world,  the 
friend  of  God,  who  makes  him  beloved  by  his  creatures, 
and  wins  souls  for  him,  bidding  them,  even  as  he  bade 
his  children,  to  keep  the  way  of  the  Lord,  to  do 
righteousness  and  judgement.^  It  was  by  this  activity 
that  Abraham  brought  God  again  nearer  to  the  world ;  ^ 
or,  as  the  Rabbis  express  it  in  another  passage,  which  we 
already  had  occasion  to  quote :  Before  Abraham  made 
God  known  to  his  creatures  he  had  been  only  the  God 
(or  the  king  of  the  heavens),  but  since  Abraham  came 
(and  commenced  his  proselytising  activity)  he  has  be- 
come also  the  God  and  the  King  of  the  earth ;  ^  Jacob 
also  is  supposed  by  the  Rabbis  to  have  taught  his 
children  before  his  death  the  ways  of  God,  whereupon 
they  received  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.^ 
Hence  the  patriarchs  (as  models  and  propagators  of 
righteousness)  became,  as  mentioned  above,  the  very 
throne  of  God,  his  Idngdom  being  based  upon  man- 
kind's knowledge  of  him,  and  their  reahsation  of  his 
nearness.® 

But  the  throne  of  God  is  not  secure  as  long  as  the 
recognition  of  the  kingship  is  only  the  possession  of  a 
few  individuals.     At  the  very  time  when  the  patriarch 

1  Berachoth,  7  b.     See  Edeles'  Commentary  to  the  passage. 

2  See  Sifre,  73  a  and  parallels. 
^  P.  K.,  I  b,  and/'.  ^.,  18^. 

*  Sifre,  134  b,  where  the  word  ^1^  occurs. 

5  See  Num.  R.,  2  8.     See  also  Gen.  R.,  93  3  and  parallels. 

*  See  above,  p.  33. 


THE   VISIBLE  KINGDOM   {UNIVERSAL)  85 

was  teaching  righteousness,  there  were  the  entire  com- 
munities of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  committed  to  idolatry 
and  the  basest  vices/  whilst  in  the  age  of  Moses,  Pha- 
raoh said,  "Who  is  the  Lord  that  I  should  obey  his 
voice  ? "  ^  The  kingship  is  therefore  uncertain  until 
there  was  called  into  existence  a  whole  people  "which 
knows  God,"  is  sanctified  unto  his  name,  and  devoted 
to  the  proclamation  of  his  unity.^  "If  my  people," 
God  says  to  the  angels,  "decKne  to  proclaim  me  as 
King  upon  earth,  my  kingdom  ceases  also  in  heaven." 
Hence  Israel  says  unto  God,  "Though  thou  wast  from 
eternity  the  same  ere  the  world  was  created,  and  the 
same  since  the  world  has  been  created,  yet  thy  throne 
was  not  established  and  thou  wast  not  known ;  but  in 
the  hour  when  we  stood  by  the  Red  Sea,  and  recited  a 
song  before  thee,  thy  kingdom  became  firmly  established 
and  thy  throne  was  firmly  set."  ^  The  establishment  of 
the  kingdom  is  indicated  in  the  eighteenth  verse  of  the 
Song  (Shirah),  where  it  is  said,  "The  Lord  shall  be 
king  for  ever  and  ever."  But  even  more  vital  proofs 
of  their  readiness  to  enter  into  the  kingdom,  Israel  gave 
on  the  day  of  "the  glorious  meeting"  on  Mount  Sinai, 
when  they  answered  in  one  voice,  "All  that  the  Lord 
hath  said  we  will  do,  and  be  obedient"  (Exod.  24.  7).^ 
This  unconditional  surrender  to  the  will  of  God  in- 

1  Sanhedrin,  \o%  a  and  parallels. 

2  See  Maimonides'  Mishneh   Torah,  T"n  «''S  C'lSl?  XTOhr},  which 
seems  to  be  a  paraphrase  of  some  Midrash.     Cf.  Nti?n.  R.y  2  6. 

^  See  Agadath  Shir  Hashiri?n,  pp.  11,  53. 

*  See  Exod.  R.y  23  1.  ^  See  P.  K.,  17  a. 


86       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

vested  Israel,  according  to  the  Rabbis,  with  a  special 
beauty  and  grace/  And  by  the  manifestation  of  the 
knowledge  of  God  through  the  act  of  the  revelation 
the  world  resumes  its  native  gracefulness,  which  makes 
it  again  heaven-like,  whilst  God  finds  more  delight  in 
men  than  in  angels.^ 

There  is  a  remarkable  passage  in  the  Mechilta,  in 
which  Israel  is  strongly  censured  because  in  the  song  at 
the  Red  Sea,  instead  of  using  the  present  tense,  ^7^  'H, 
"  God  is  King,"  they  said  ^1^^^  TI,  "  God  shall  he 
King,"  thus  deferring  the  establishment  of  the  king- 
dom to  an  indefinite  future.^  Israel  had  accordingly 
some  sort  of  foreboding  of  the  evil  times  to  come,  a 
foreboding  which  was  amply  justified  by  the  course  of 
history.  Israel  soon  rebelled  against  the  kingdom. 
There  was  the  rebellious  act  of  the  Golden  Calf,  which 
took  place  on  the  very  spot  where  the  kingdom  was 
proclaimed,  and  which  was  followed  by  other  acts  of 

1  See  Midrash  Agadah,  ed.  B.  1 71  a.  Cf.  the  Targum  to  Song  of 
Songs,  7  7. 

2  See  Exod.  R.,  51  8,  and  parallels. 

3  See  Mechilta,  44  a,  in  the  name  of  R.  Jose  of  Galilee.  The  text 
in  the  editions  is  corrupt.     In  the  M.  H.  G.  it  runs :  D^iub  "^ibtt^  'T[ 

ntabtr  xb  nui  obii?  '-^)i  'n  h)itrw  n^x  ibK  'X21k  'dv  n  ♦nn 
•"jBia  ♦Kinb  Tnrb  -in  Dbiub  "]ibD''  'n  «bx  msb^i  n^ix  ura. 
nx  D.Tbi?  at:?^i  ♦bbsn  nuis  ^xiy  ^rhii  nu"iD  did  «n  ^d  nja 
DH-QX  ^JD  -[nbroi  >Ty-ii2  fX2ii  -|tti7  ^DK  *  ntT  DH^bi;  *  D\n  ^i:: 
rr^iii'^  nuD.ntr  fs^  ♦  "[msn  apy^  nns^ria  "jtt  pnr  y-ii  "[nmx 
D^^  -[inn  ntrn^n  iD'?n  '^^itr^  ^3m  ♦  "iri::^  nutsDtr^  hddi.  cf.  Tar- 
gum Onkelos  to  this  verse,  whose  paraphrase  may  have  been  intended 
to  avoid  the  difficulty  felt  by  R.  Jose.  Cf.,  however,  Nachmanides' 
commentary  to  this  verse  and  his  reference  to  Onkelos. 


THE   VISIBLE  KINGDOM  (UNIVERSAL)  87 

rebellion  against  God.^  "In  the  days  of  Joshua  b. 
Nun,  Israel  received  upon  themselves  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  in  love  .  .  .  and  their  reward  v^as  that  God 
regarded  them  as  pupils  in  the  house  of  their  teacher 
and  children  gathered  round  the  table  of  their  father, 
and  he  apportioned  to  them  a  blessing."  ^  Then  came 
again  continual  relapses,  and  the  sons  of  Eli  were 
called  hTb^  ^3D,  the  sons  of  Belial,  —  men  who  threw 
off  the  yoke  of  God  ^  and  denied  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,^  but  "in  the  times  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  Israel 
(again)  received  upon  themselves  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
in  fear  .  .  .  and  their  reward  was  that  God  came  down 
from  the  upper  heavens,  the  place  of  his  glory  .  .  . 
and  abode  with  them  during  the  battle  (with  the 
Philistines),  and  apportioned  to  them  a  blessing."* 
After  David  came  the  decay,  and  Solomon  is  described 
as  one  who  threw  off  the  yoke  of  God.^  The  division 
of  the  ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam  was  also  regarded  as 
a  rebellion  against  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  Rabbis 
interpreted  2  Samuel  20.  1,  as  if  the  original  reading 
had  been  ^^^ItT^  Vrhih  ^'i<,  ''Every  man  to  his  gods, 
O  Israel"  (instead  of  to  his  tents) J    Even  the  princes 

1  See  Num.  R.,  72.  "^  S.  E.,  p.  ?>6.  3  See  Sifre,  93  b. 

*  See  Yalkutto  Shemuel,  §  86,  and  Midrash  She??iuel,  B.  p.  31  b,  from 
which  the  passage  in  question  was  taken.  The  marginal  reference  to 
T.  K.  (39  d)  refers  only  to  the  first  lines  of  the  passage,  which 
Schottgen  (1149)  confused.     See  Ecc/es.  R.,  i  I8. 

5  S.  E.,  p.  86.  6  j^ji^i^  ^.^  4 10. 

■^  The  rebellion  of  the  Belial  Sheba,  the  son  of  Bichri,  is  only  a  prel- 
ude to  that  effected  by  Jeroboam.  See  Midrash  She?nuel,  B.  ch.  42  3, 
§  4,  and  notes,  and  Mechilta,  39  a,  ^3  pbn  ^h  pK  m  K^iVS,  etc. 


88       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

of  Judah  at  a  later  time  "broke  the  yoke  of  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  and  took  upon  themselves  the  yoke 
of  the  King  of  Flesh  and  Blood."  The  phrase, 
"broke"  or  "removed"  the  yoke,  is  not  uncommon 
in  Rabbinic  literature,  and  has  a  theological  meaning. 
The  passage  just  cited  refers  probably  to  some  deifica- 
tion of  Roman  emperors  by  Jewish  apostates,  and  not 
exactly  to  a  political  revolt.^ 

Yet,  notwithstanding  all  these  relapses,  one  great  end 
was  achieved,  and  this  was,  that  there  existed  a  whole 
people  who  did  once  select  God  as  their  king.  Over 
the  people  as  a  whole,  as  already  hinted,  God  asserts 
his  right  to  maintain  his  kingdom.  Thus  the  Rabbis 
interpret  Ezekiel  20  33,  "Without  your  consent  and 
against  your  will  I  (God)  shall  be  King  over  you;"  and 
when  the  elders  of  Israel  remonstrate,  "We  are  now 
among  the  Gentiles,  and  have  therefore  no  reason  for 
not  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  his  kingdom,"  the  Holy  One 
answers,  "This  shall  not  come  to  pass,  for  I  will  send 
my  prophets,  who  will  lead  you  back  under  my  wings."  ^ 
The  right  of  possession  is  thus  enforced  by  an  inner 
process,  the  prophets  being  a  part  of  the  people;  and 
so  there  will  always  be  among  them  a  remnant  which 
will  remain  true  to  their  mission  of  preaching  the  king- 
dom.    The  remnant  is  naturally  small  in  number,  but 

1  See  A.  R.  N.,  36  b.  See,  however,  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  i  58, 
note  I,  and  the  reference  there  to  Weiss  T'n.  Cf.  Beth  Talmud^ 
2,  333-334. 

2  See  T.  K.f  \\2  b.  Cf.  Sankedrin,  105  a  and  parallels.  Cf.  also 
Exod,  J?.,  3  2,  and  above,  p.  55,  note  2. 


THE    VISIBLE  KINGDOM   (UNIVERSAL)  Sg 

is  sufficient  to  keep  the  idea  of  the  kingdom  alive. 
"God  saw,"  say  the  Rabbis,  "that  the  righteous  were 
sparse;  he  therefore  planted  them  in  (or  distributed 
them  over)  all  generations,  as  it  is  said  (2  Samuel  i  8), 
*'  For  the  pillars  of  the  earth  are  the  Lord's,  and  he  has 
set  the  world  upon  them.'"  The  pillars,  according  to 
the  Rabbinical  explanation,  are  the  righteous,  who,  by 
the  fact  of  their  being  devoted  to  the  Lord,  form  the 
foundation  of  the  spiritual  world. ^ 

We  will  now  try  to  sum  up  in  some  clearer  way  the 
results  to  which  the  preceding  statements  mostly  con- 
sisting of  Rabbinical  quotations,  may  lead  us.  We 
learn  first  that  the  kingdom  of  God  is  in  this  world. 
In  the  next  world,  if  we  understand  by  it  the  heavens, 
or  any  other  sphere  where  angels  and  ethereal  souls 
dwell,  there  is  no  object  in  the  kingdom.  The  term 
"kingdom  of  heaven"  must  therefore  be  taken  in  the 
sense  in  which  heaven  is  equivalent  to  God,  not  locally, 
as  if  the  kingdom  were  located  in  the  celestial  spheres. 
The  term  "''ItZ?  m^S^  in  the  Prayer  Book,^  the  kingdom 
of  the  Almighty,  may  be  safely  regarded  as  a  synonym 

of  n^^i2^  m^SD. 

This  kingdom  again  is  established  on  earth  by  man's 
consciousness  that  God  is  near  to  him ;  whilst  nearness 

1  Voma,  38  d. 

2  Beginning  mp3  p  717,  see  below,  p.  94.  Cf.  A.  R.  N.,  36  b,  where 
he  speaks  of  .T'Dpn  T'lT  17117,  instead  of  which  certain  Mss.  have  all 
W^'iJ  7117.  The  mystical  literature,  it  should  be  noted,  speaks  of 
angels  "taking  upon  themselves  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 
See  Singer,  p.  38  and  Baer,  p.  132. 


90        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

of  God  to  man  means  the  knowledge  of  God's  ways  to 
do  righteousness  and  judgement.  In  other  words,  it  is 
the  sense  of  duty  and  responsibility  to  the  heavenly  king 
who  is  concerned  in  and  superintends  our  actions. 
''Behold  thou  art  fair,  my  love,"  says  God  to  Israel, 
"you  are  fair  through  the  giving  of  alms  and  perform- 
ing acts  of  loving-kindness ;  you  (Israel)  are  my  lovers 
and  friends  when  you  walk  in  my  ways.  As  the 
Omnipresent  is  merciful  and  gracious,  long-suffering 
and  abundant  in  goodness,  so  be  ye  .  .  .  feeding  the 
hungry,  giving  drink  to  the  thirsty,  clothing  the  naked, 
ransoming  the  captives,  and  marrying  the  orphans. 
.  .  .  They  will  behold  the  Right  One,  which  is  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  as  it  is  said,  '  A  God  of  truth  and 
without  iniquity,  just  and  Right  is  he'"  (Deut.  32  4)/ 
''The  hill  of  the  Lord,"  and  "the  tabernacle  of  God" 
in  the  Psalms,  in  which  only  the  workers  of  righteous- 
ness and  the  pure-hearted  shall  abide,  are  kingdoms 
of  God  in  miniature. 

The  idea  of  the  kingdom  may  thus  be  conceived  as 
ethical  (not  exactly  eschatological)  and  it  was  in  this 
sense  perhaps  that  the  Rabbis  considered  the  patriarchs 
and  the  prophets  as  the  preachers  of  the  kingdom. 
It  is  not  even  exactly  identical  with  the  law  or  the  Torah. 
Why  do  we  read,  ask  the  Rabbis,  first  the  Shema  {i.e. 
Deut.  6.  4-9),  and  afterwards  the  section  Deut.  11  13, 
commencing  with  the  words,  "And  it  shall  come  to 
pass  if  ye  will  hearken  diligently  unto  my  command- 

^  See  Agadath  Shir  Hashirim^  p.  i8,  and  p.  61. 


THE   VISIBLE  KINGDOM  (UNIVERSAL)  91 

ments  "  ?  This  is  done,  say  the  Rabbis,  to  the  end  that 
we  may  receive  upon  ourselves  first  the  yoke  of  the 
kingdom  and  afterwards  the  yoke  of  the  command- 
ments.^ The  law  is  thus  only  a  necessary  consequence 
of  the  kingdom,  but  not  identical  with  it.^ 

Indeed,  the  Torah  itself  indicates  its  relation  to  the 
Kingdom;  for  the  Rabbis  say  in  allusion  to  Deut.  32 
29,  ''Had  Israel  looked  properly  into  the  words  of  the 
Torah  that  were  revealed  to  them,  no  nation  would 
have  ever  gained  dominion  over  them.  And  what  did 
she  (the  Torah)  say  unto  them?  Receive  upon  your- 
selves the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  my  name ;  outweigh 
each  other  in  the  fear  of  heaven,  and  let  your  conduct 

^  Berachoth,  i^a. 

2  In  this  connection  reference  may  be  had  to  the  following  Mid- 
rashic  passage  alluding  to  Zech.  99  :  "  Rejoice  greatly,  O  daughter 
of  Zion,  .  .  .  behold  thy  King  is  coming  unto  thee.  .  .  ."  God  says 
to  Israel  :  "  Ye  righteous  of  the  world,  the  words  of  the  Torah  are  im- 
portant for  me ;  ye  were  attached  to  the  Torah,  but  did  not  hope  for 
my  kingdom.  I  take  an  oath  that  with  regard  to  those  who  hope  for 
my  kingdom  I  shall  myself  bear  witness  for  their  good.  .  .  .  These 
are  the  mourners  over  Zion  who  are  humble  in  spirit,  who  hear  their 
offence  and  answer  not,  and  never  claim  merit  for  themselves."  Lec- 
tor Friedmann,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Pesikta,  perceives  in  this  very 
obscure  passage  the  emphatic  expression  of  the  importance  of  the  king- 
dom, which  is  more  universal  than  the  words  of  the  Torah  ;  the  latter 
having  only  the  aim  of  preparing  mankind  for  the  kingdom.  See  P. 
R.,  159  a,  text  and  notes  (especially  note  23).  To  me  it  seems  that 
the  passage  has  probably  to  be  taken  in  the  sense  of  the  text  communi- 
cated from  Friedmann's  D^PISD:,  below,  p.  292.  There  are,  also,  very 
grave  doubts  as  to  the  age  and  character  of  all  these  Messianic 
Pesiktoth.  See  Friedmann's  interesting  note,  ibid.,  p.  164  a,  164  ^, 
though  he  defends  their  genuineness. 


92 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 


be  mutual  loving-kindness."  ^  Among  the  features  of 
the  kingdom,  the  fear  of  God  and  the  love  of  one's 
neighbor  are  thus  found  to  be  prominent. 

Nor,  again,  is  the  kingdom  of  God  political.  The 
patriarchs  in  the  mind  of  the  Rabbis  did  not  figure 
prominently  as  worldly  princes,  but  as  teachers  of 
the  kingdom.^  The  idea  of  theocracy  as  opposed  to 
any  other  form  of  government  was  quite  foreign  to 
the  Rabbis.  There  is  not  the  slightest  hint  in  the  whole 
Rabbinic  literature  that  the  Rabbis  gave  any  preference 
to  a  hierarchy  with  an  ecclesiastical  head  who  pretends 
to  be  the  vice-regent  of  God,  over  a  secular  prince  who 
derives  his  authority  from  the  divine  right  of  his  dynasty.^ 
Every  authority,  according  to  the  creed  of  the  Rabbis, 
was  appointed  by  heaven ;  ^  but  they  had  also  the  sad 
experience  that  each  in  its  turn  rebelled  against  heaven. 
The  high  priests,  Menelaus  and  Alcimus,  were  just  as 
wicked  and  as  ready  to  betray  their  nation  and  their 

1  Sifre,  138  a:.  Perhaps  we  ought  to  read  D'^ttt!?  instead  of  *'^'^. 
Cf.  also  S.  E.y  p.  143 :  "  And  thus  said  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  My 
beloved  children,  do  I  miss  anything  (which  you  could  give  me)  ?  I 
want  nothing  but  that  you  love  each  other,  respect  each  other,  and  that 
no  sin  or  ugly  thing  be  found  among  you." 

2  There  are  some  legends  in  which  Abraham  appears  in  the  capacity 
of  a  prince,  cf.  Gen.  R.,  42  5,  but,  it  is  not  as  a  ruler,  but  as  a  teacher, 
that  he  figures  mostly  in  Rabbinic  literature. 

3  See  Renan,  Hibbert  Lectures.,  p.  107,  who  has  some  apt  remarks 
on  this  point,  but  which  are  at  the  same  time  greatly  disfigured  by  his 
mania  of  generalising  on  Semitic  religions. 

*  See  Berachoth,  58  a.  With  regard  to  Rome  in  particular,  see 
Abodah  Zarah,  17  a,  D^DtTH  jtt  mD^bttn  IT  HttlKtt?. 


THE    VISIBLE  KINGDOM   (UNIVERSAL)  93 

God  as  the  laymen,  Herod  and  Archelaus,  who  owed 
their  throne  to  Roman  machinations. 

If,  then,  the  kingdom  of  God  was  thus  originally 
intended  to  be  in  the  midst  of  men  and  for  men  at  large 
(as  represented  by  Adam),  if  its  first  preachers  were, 
like  Abraham,  ex-heathens,  who  addressed  themselves 
to  heathens,  if,  again,  the  essence  of  their  preaching 
was  righteousness  and  justice,  and  if,  lastly,  the  king- 
dom does  not  mean  a  hierarchy,  but  any  form  of  gov- 
ernment conducted  on  the  principles  of  righteousness, 
holiness,  justice,  and  charitableness,  then  we  may  safely 
maintain  that  the  kingdom  of  God,  as  taught  by 
Judaism  in  one  of  its  aspects,  is  universal  in  its  aims. 

Hence  the  universal  tone  generally  prevalent  in  all 
the  kingship  prayers  (nVD7^).  The  foremost  among 
these  are  the  concluding  lines  of  the  kingship  bene- 
diction recited  on  the  New  Year,  running  thus :  "  Our 
God  and  God  of  our  fathers,  reign  thou  in  thy  glory 
over  the  whole  universe,  and  be  exalted  above  all  the 
earth  in  thine  honour,  and  shine  forth  in  the  splendour 
and  excellence  of  thy  might,  upon  all  the  inhabitants 
of  thy  world,  that  whatsoever  hath  been  made  may 
know  that  thou  hast  made  it,  and  whatsoever  hath  been 
created  may  understand  that  thou  hast  created  it,  and 
whatsoever  hath  breath  in  its  nostrils,  may  say,  the 
Lord  God  of  Israel  is  King,  and  his  dominion  ruleth 
over  all.  .  .  .  O  purify  our  hearts  to  serve  thee  in 
truth,  for  thou  art  God  in  truth,  and  thy  word  is  truth, 
and  endureth   forever.      Blessed   art   thou,   O    Lord, 


94 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 


King  over  all  the  earth,  who  sanctifiest  Israel  and  the 
Day  of  Memorial."  ^  A  later  variation  of  this  benedic- 
tion, forming  now  a  part  both  of  the  kingship  prayers 
and  of  the  daily  prayer,  is  the  passage  referred  to 
above,  expressing  the  hope  of  Israel  for  the  future,  in 
the  following  exahed  language:  ''We  therefore  hope 
in  thee,  O  Lord  our  God,  that  we  may  speedily  behold 
the  glory  of  thy  might,  when  thou  wilt  remove  the 
abominations  from  the  earth,  and  the  idols  will  be 
utterly  cut  off,  when  the  world  will  be  perfected  under 
the  kingdom  of  the  Almighty,  and  all  the  children 
of  flesh  will  call  upon  thy  name,  when  thou  wilt  turn 
unto  thyself  all  the  wicked  of  the  earth.  Let  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  world  perceive  and  know  that 
unto  thee  every  knee  must  bow,  every  tongue  must 
swear.  Before  thee,  O  Lord  our  God,  let  them  bow 
and  fall;  and  unto  thy  glorious  name  let  them  give 
honour;  let  them  all  accept  the  yoke  of  thy  kingdom, 
and  do  thou  reign  over  them  speedily,  and  for  ever  and 
ever.  For  the  kingdom  is  thine,  and  to  all  eternity 
thou  wilt  reign  in  glory ;  as  it  is  written  in  thy  Torah, 
the  Lord  shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever."  ^  One  of  the 
evening  benedictions  in  the  German  ritual,  which 
probably  formed  once  the  whole  of  the  evening  prayer, 
concludes  with  the  following  passages:  "Our  God 
who  art  in  heaven,  assert  the  unity  of  thy  name,  and 

1  See  Singer,  p.  249,  and  Baer,  p.  399. 

2  Singer,  pp.  76  and  247,  and  Baer,  ibid.,  pp.  132  and  398.     See 
above,  p.  89. 


THE   VISIBLE  KINGDOM  (UNIVERSAL)  95 

establish  thy  kingdom  continually,  and  reign  over  us 
for  ever  and  ever.  May  our  eyes  behold,  our  hearts 
rejoice,  and  our  souls  be  glad  in  thy  true  salvation, 
when  it  shall  be  said  unto  Zion,  Thy  God  reigneth. 
The  Lord  reigneth :  the  Lord  hath  reigned ;  the  Lord 
shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever :  for  the  kingdom  is  thine, 
and  to  everlasting  thou  wilt  reign  in  glory ;  for  we  have 
no  king  but  thee.  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  the 
King,  who  constantly  in  his  glory  will  reign  over  us 
and  over  all  his  works  for  ever  and  ever."  ^  The 
Kaddish  (the  "Sanctification"),  again,  which  is  recited 
several  times  a  day,  in  every  synagogue,  commences 
with  the  words:  "Magnified  and  sanctified  be  his 
great  Name  in  the  world  which  he  hath  created  accord- 
ing to  his  will.  And  may  he  establish  his  kingdom 
during  your  life  and  during  your  days,"  ^  etc.  A 
variation  of  it  is  the  prayer  sung  before  the  reading  of 
the  law  on  the  Sabbath,  after  the  declaration  of  the 
unity  by  the  Shema  and  other  verses,  ''  Magnified  and 
hallowed  ...  be  the  name  of  the  King  of  Kings  of 
Kings,  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  in  the  worlds 
which  he  hath  created,  —  this  world  and  the  world  to 
come."^  The  magnifying  of  God's  name,  as  a  con- 
sequence, both  of  his  Unity  and  of  his  Kingship,  finds 
also  expression  in  the  first  line  of  an  ancient  prayer 

1  Cf.  Singer,  p.  loi  ;  Baer,  p.  169. 

2  Baer,  ibid.,  p.  129.     See  Singer,  p.  75. 

3  See  Baer,  p.  224.   Cf.  Mueller,  Masechet  Soferim,  ch.  25,  and  p.  196. 
See  also  Singer,  p.  146. 


96        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

known  to  the  Geonim:  ''Our  King,  our  God,  assert 
the  unity  of  thy  name  in  thy  world,  assert  the  unity  of 
thy  kingdom  in  thy  world."  ^  In  this  connection  it  is 
worth  noting  that  citations  from  the  Scriptures  em- 
bodied in  the  Kingship  Benediction  conclude  with  the 
verse  from  Deut.  6  4,  ''Hear,  O  Israel,"  etc.,  which 
proves  again  the  close  relation  between  the  doctrine 
of  the  Unity  and  that  of  God's  universal  Kingdom,^ 
which  belief  is  among  others  well  illustrated  by  the 
words  of  R.  Bachye  Ibn  Chalwah,  who  says :  ''  And  it 
is  well  known  that  the  real  Unity  (will  only  be  realised 
in  the  days  of  the  Messiah,  for  in  the  times  of  subjec- 
tion of  Israel)  the  signs  of  the  Unity  are  not  discernible 
(the  worship  of  mankind  being  distributed  among  many 
unworthy  objects),  so  that  the  denying  of  the  truth  is 
constantly  in  the  increase.  But  with  the  advent  of  the 
Messiah  all  the  nations  will  turn  to  one  creed,  and  the 
world  will  be  perfected  under  the  Kingdom  of  the  Al- 
mighty, all  of  them  agreeing  to  worship  the  name  and 
to  call  upon  the  name  of  God.  Then  only  will  the 
unity  of  God  become  common  in  the  mouth  of  all 
the  nations.  This  is  the  promise  the  prophet  made 
for  the  future:  "And  the  Lord  shall  be  King  over  all 
the  earth :  in  that  day  shall  the  Lord  be  One  and  his 
name  One."  ^ 

1  See  Seder  Rab  Amram,  p.  9  a. 

2  Baer,  ibid.,  p.  399,  and  cf.  above,  p.  64,  note  3. 

3  n^pn  -13,  end  of  the  chapter  mn\ 


VII 
THE  KINGDOM   OF   GOD    (NATIONAL) 

The  Kingship  Prayer,  just  cited,  is  introduced  by 
another  group  of  prayers  relating  also  to  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  but  containing  at  the  same  time  emphatic 
references  to  Israel's  connection  with  it.  These  prayers 
have  for  their  burden  the  speedy  advent  of  the  day  in 
which  all  creatures  will  form  one  single  band  to  do 
God's  will  with  a  perfect  heart,  when  righteousness 
will  triumph,  and  the  pious  and  the  saints  will  rejoice ; 
but  also  when  God  will  give  glory  to  his  people,  joys 
to  his  land,  gladness  to  his  city,  and  a  clear  shining 
light  unto  his  Messiah,  the  son  of  Jesse.  They  con- 
clude with  the  words,  "  And  thou,  O  Lord,  shalt  reign, 
thou  alone  over  all  thy  works  on  Mount  Zion,  the  dwell- 
ing place  of  thy  glory,  and  in  Jerusalem,  thy  holy  city, 
as  it  is  written  in  thy  Holy  words,  '  The  Lord  shall 
reign  for  ever,  thy  God  of  Zion,  unto  all  generations. 
Praise  ye  the  Lord  '  "  (Ps.  146  10).  The  prayer  of  the 
Geonim  also  continues  with  the  words,  "  Build  thy 
house,  establish  thy  Temple,  bring  near  thy  Messiah, 
and  rejoice  thy  congregation."  Indeed,  the  credit 
is  given  to  Israel  that  they  suppress  the  Evil  Yezer, 
declare  his  (God's)  unity,  and  proclaim  him  as  king 
H  97 


98        SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

every  day,  and  wait  for  his  kingdom,  and  hope  to 
see  the  building  of  his  Temple,  and  say  every  day, 
"The  Lord  doth  build  up  Jerusalem:  he  gathereth 
together  the  outcasts  of  Israel "  (Ps.  147  2).^  The 
idea  of  the  kingdom  is  accordingly  often  so  closely  con- 
nected with  the  redemption  of  Israel  from  the  exile,  the 
advent  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Tem- 
ple, as  to  be  inseparable  from  it.  This  is  its  national 
aspect.  ''Israel  are  the  people  for  whose  sake  (or 
Zachuth)  the  world  was  created ;  and  it  is  on  them  that 
the  world  was  based."  Israel,  again,  as  we  have  seen, 
are  the  people,  who,  by  their  glorious  acts  at  the  Red 
Sea,  and  especially  by  their  readiness  at  Mount  Sinai 
to  receive  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom,  became  the  very 
pillars  of  the  throne.  To  add  here  another  passage 
of  the  same  nature,  the  saying  of  R.  Simon  may  be 
given,  who  expresses  the  idea  in  very  bold  language. 
Speaking  of  the  supports  of  the  world,  and  Israel's 
part  in  them,  he  says :  "  As  long  as  Israel  is  united  into 
one  league  (that  is,  making  bold  front  against  any 
heresy  denying  the  unity  or  the  supremacy  of  God),  the 
kingdom  in  heaven  is  maintained  by  them;  whilst 
Israel's  falling  off  from  God  shakes  the  throne  to  its 
very  foundation  in  heaven."  ^  The  banishment  of 
Israel  from  the  holy  land  has  the  same  consequence. 

1  See  Singer,  p.  239  se^.  ;  Baer,  p,  395  se^. ;   Seder  R.  Amram, 
ga;   Friedmann,  DTtBD^,  p.  56. 

2  See  Exod.  R.  38  4.     See  also  Midrash  Shemuel,  B.  5,  1 1  and  refer- 
ences.   Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.  2  140,  note  i.     See  also  above,  p.  85. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD   (NATIONAL)  99 

Thus  said  the  congregation  of  Israel  before  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  "  Is  there  a  king  without  a  throne ; 
is  there  a  king  without  a  crown;  is  there  a  king 
without  a  palace  ?  '  How  long  wilt  thou  forget  me,  O 
Lord  ? '"  (Ps.  132)/  Jerusalem,  which  the  Prophet  (Jer. 
3  17)  called  the  throne  of  the  Lord,  becomes  identified 
with  it;  and  Amalek,  who  destroyed  the  holy  city,  is 
guilty  of  rebellion  against  God  and  his  kingdom.^ 
Therefore  neither  the  throne  of  God  nor  his  holy  name 
is  perfect  (that  is  to  say,  fully  revealed)  as  long  as 
the  children  of  the  Amalekites  exist  in  the  world.^  And 
just  as  Israel  are  the  bearers  of  the  name  of  God,  so  the 
Amalekites  are  the  representatives  of  idolatry  and  every 
base  thing  antagonistic  to  God,  so  that  R.  Eleazar  of 
Modyim  thinks  that  the  existence  of  the  one  necessarily 
involves  the  destruction  of  the  other.  "When  will  the 
name  of  the  Amalekites  be  wiped  out?"  he  exclaims. 
"  Not  before  both  the  idols  and  their  worshippers  cease 
to  exist,  when  God  will  be  alone  in  the  world  and  his 
kingdom  established  for  ever  and  ever."  ^  These 
passages,  to  which  many  more  of  a  similar  nature  might 
be  added,  are  the  more  calculated  to  give  to  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  a  national  aspect,  when  we  remember 
that  Amalek  is  only  another  name  for  his  ancestor 
Esau,  who  is  the  father  of  Edom,  who  is  but  a  prototype 
for  Rome.     With  this  kingdom,  represented  in  Jewish 

^MT.,131.  "2  p.  JiT.,  2$  a. 

^  F.J^.,29  a,P.  I?.,  ^la  and  parallels. 

4  Mechilta,  56  a,  56  b.     Cf.  M.  T.  97  :  i  and  99 :  i. 


lOO     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

literature  by  the  fourth  beast  of  the  vision  of  Daniel/ 
Israel  according  to  the  Rabbis  is  at  deadly  feud,  a  feud 
which  began  before  its  ancestors  even  perceived  that  the 
light  of  the  world  is  perpetually  carried  on  by  their 
descendants,  and  will  only  be  brought  to  an  end  with 
history  itself.^  The  contest  over  the  birthright  is  in- 
dicative of  the  struggle  for  supremacy  between  Israel 
and  Rome.  It  would  seem  even  as  if  Israel  despairs 
of  asserting  the  claims  of  his  acquired  birthright,  and 
concedes  this  world  to  Esau.  "Two  worlds  there  are," 
Jacob  says  unto  Esau,  ''this  world  and  the  world  to 
come.  In  this  world  there  is  eating  and  drinking,  but 
in  the  next  world  there  are  the  righteous,  who  with 
crowns  on  their  heads  revel  in  the  glory  of  the  divine 
presence.  Choose  as  first-born  the  world  which  pleases 
thee.  Esau  chose  this  world."  ^  Jacob's  promise  to 
join  his  brother  at  Seir  meant  that  meeting  in  the  dis- 
tant future,  when  the  Messiah  of  Israel  will  appear 
and  the  Holy  One  will  make  his  kingdom  shine 
forth  over  Israel,  as  it  is  said  (Obadiah  21):  "And 
saviours  shall  come  up  on  Mount  Zion  to  judge  the 
mount  of  Esau ;  and  the  kingdom  shall  be  the  Lord's."  * 

1  See  Lev.  R.,  13  5  and  parallels.  Valuable  information  on  this 
point  is  to  be  found  in  Senior  Sachs's  edition  of  the  Carmina  Sancta 
Solomonis  Ibn  Gabirol,  pp.  70-100.  Cf.  also  Zunz,  Synagogale  Poesie, 
p.  437  seq.  See  also  A.  Epstein,  Beitr'dge  zur  judischen  Alterthums- 
kunde,  p.  35. 

2  Gen.  R.,  61,  §§  6,  7,  9. 

8  See  Friedmann,  D^nBD3,  26  b  and  P.  K.,  59  b. 
*  Gen.  P.,  78  and  parallels. 


THE  KINGDOM   OF  GOD   (NATIONAL)  loi 

Thus  the  kingdom  of  heaven  stands  in  opposition  to  the 
kingdom  of  Rome,  and  becomes  connected  with  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  and  it  is  in  conformity  with  this 
sentiment  that  a  Rabbi,  picturing  the  glorious  spring, 
in  which  the  budding  of  Israel's  redemption  will  first 
be  perceived,  exclaims:  "The  time  has  arrived  when 
the  reign  of  the  wicked  will  break  down  and  Israel  will 
be  redeemed ;  the  time  has  come  for  the  extermination 
of  the  kingdom  of  wickedness ;  the  time  has  come  for 
the  revelation  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  the  voice 
of  the  Messiah  is  heard  in  our  land."  ^ 

This  is  only  a  specimen  of  dozens  of  interpretations 
of  the  same  nature,  round  which  a  whole  world  of 
myths  and  legend  grew  up,  in  which  the  chiliastic  ele- 
ment, with  all  its  excesses,  was  strongly  emphasised. 
They  fluctuate  and  change  with  the  great  historical 
events  and  the  varying  influences  by  which  they  were 
suggested.^     But  there  are  also  fixed  elements  in  them 

1  See  P.  K.,  50  a,  and  P.  R.^  75  a,  text  and  notes. 

2  Dr.  Joseph  Klausner's  Die  niessianischen  Vorstellungen  im  Zeitalter 
der  Tannaiten  is  very  instructive,  though  not  all  his  results  seem  to  me 
acceptable.  See  also  Dr.  Julius  H.  Greenstone's  The  Messiah  Idea  in 
Jewish  History,  which  gives  also  references  to  the  latest  literature  on 
the  subject,  including  the  Rev.  Dr.  R.  H.  Charles'  Eschatology.  On 
the  whole  I  think  that  R.  Isaac  Abarbanel's  noble  HUlti^''  U'Dtt'D  con- 
tains still  the  best  presentation  of  the  Rabbinic  belief  in  the  Messiah, 
as  entertained  by  the  great  majority  of  Rabbinic  Jews.  (See  es- 
pecially in  his  fourteen  articles,  D''"ip''17.)  The  statement  by  some 
moderns,  to  the  effect  that  Rabbinism  did  not  hold  the  belief  in  a 
personal  Messiah  essential,  is  unscientific  and  needs  no  refutation  for 
those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  literature. 


102      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

which  are  to  be  found  in  the  Rabbinic  literature  of 
almost  every  age  and  date.     These  are :  — 

I.  The  faith  that  the  Messiah,  a  descendant  of  the 
house  of  David,  will  restore  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
which  under  his  sceptre  will  extend  over  the  whole 
world.  2.  The  notion  that  a  last  terrible  battle  will 
take  place  with  the  enemies  of  God  (or  of  Israel),  who 
will  strive  against  the  estabhshment  of  the  kingdom, 
and  who  will  finally  be  destroyed.  "When  will  the 
Lord  be  King  for  ever  and  ever?  When  the  heathen 
—  that  is,  the  Romans  —  will  have  perished  out  of  the 
land."  ^  3.  The  belief  that  the  estabhshment  of  this 
new  kingdom  will  be  followed  by  the  spiritual  hege- 
mony of  Israel,  when  all  the  nations  will  accept  the 
behef  in  the  unity  of  God,  acknowledge  his  kingdom, 
and  seek  instruction  from  his  law.  4.  The  conviction 
that  it  will  be  an  age  of  material  happiness  as  well 
as  spiritual  bliss  for  all  those  who  are  included  in  the 
kingdom,^  when  further  death  will  disappear  and  the 
dead  will  revive. 

1  See  M.  T.,  10  7. 

2  It  should  however  be  noticed  that  the  authorities  are  not  quite  in 
agreement  as  to  the  date  of  resurrection,  not  all  of  them  making 
it  a  condition  of  the  Messianic  times.  Rabbi  Hillel's  (fl.  3*^  century) 
statement,  "Israel  has  no  hope  for  a  Messiah"  (SanAedrin  gg^) ,  is 
entirely  isolated.  It  should  further  be  noticed  that  in  some  sources 
the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  preparation  for  the 
time  when  God  himself  will  reign.  Indeed,  all  the  versions  of  the  well- 
known  Midrash  of  the  Ten  Kings  after  the  Messiah,  the  kingdom 
comes  back  to  his  first  master,  that  is  God,  who  was  the  first  King  after 
the  creation  of  the  world.    The  only  place  where  the  kingdom  of  Mes- 


THE  KINGDOM   OF  GOD   (NATIONAL)  103 

The  two  ideas  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  over  which 
God  reigns,  and  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  in  which  the 
Messiah  holds  the  sceptre,  became  thus  almost  identical. 

This  identification  has  both  narrowed,  and  to  some 
extent  even  materialised,  the  notion  of  the  kingdom. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  also  enriched  it  with  certain  fea- 
tures investing  it  with  that  amount  of  substance  and 
reality  which  are  most  necessary,  if  an  idea  is  not  to 
become  meaningless  and  lifeless.  It  is  just  this  danger 
to  which  ideas  are  exposed  in  the  process  of  their  spirit- 
ualisation.  That  "the  letter  killeth,  but  the  spirit 
giveth  life,"  is  a  truth  of  which  Judaism,  which  did  de- 
part very  often  from  the  letter,  was  as  conscious  as  any 
other  religion.  Zerachya  ben  Shealtiel,  in  his  Commen- 
tary to  Job  ^  2  14,  goes  even  so  far  as  to  say:  "  Should 
I  explain  this  chapter  according  to  its  letter,  I  should  be 
a  heretic,  because  I  would  have  to  make  such  conces- 
sions to  Satan's  powers  as  are  inconsistent  with  the 
belief  in  the  Unity.  I  shall  therefore  interpret  it 
according  to  the  spirit  of  philosophy."  But,  unfor- 
tunately, there  is  also  an  evil  spirit  which  sometimes 
possesses   itself   of  an  idea  and  reduces  it  to  a  mere 

siahis  identified  with  that  of  God  is  Pugio  Fidei,  by  Raymundus,  p.  397; 
but  there  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the  text  of  Raymundus  was 
tampered  with  for  controversial  purposes.  See  the  literature  on  this 
point  in  the  Expositor,  vol.  7,  3d  series,  p.  108.  Neubauer's  remarks 
there  are  far  from  convincing.  See  also  Cassel  in  his  Commentary 
to  Esther,  p.  263,  where  he  gives  a  reference  to  the  New  Testament, 
I  Corinthians  1523-28. 

1  Published  in  the  ti^13K  Dlpn,  a  collection  of  commentaries  to  Job, 
by  Schwartz. 


I04     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

phantasm.  The  history  of  theology  is  greatly  haunted 
by  these  unclean  spirits.  The  best  guard  against  them 
is  to  provide  the  idea  with  some  definiteness  and  reality 
in  which  we  can  perceive  the  evidence  of  the  spirit. 

This  was  the  service  rendered  by  the  connection  of 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  with  the  kingdom  of  God.  It 
fixed  the  kingdom  in  this  world.  It  had,  of  course,  to 
be  deferred  to  some  indefinite  period,  but  still  its  locale 
remained  in  our  globe,  not  unknown  regions  in  another 
world.  It  was  extended  from  the  individual  to  a 
whole  nation,  placing  a  whole  people  into  its  service 
and  training  it  for  this  end,  thus  making  the  idea  of 
the  kingdom  visible  and  tangible.  A  whole  common- 
wealth, with  all  its  institutions,  civil  and  ecclesiastical, 
becomes  part  and  parcel  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 
The  Lord  has  made  all  things  for  himself,  for  the 
glory  of  his  kingdom,  which  includes  all  creation. 
But  Israel  understood  their  duty  to  the  extent  of  giving 
in  time  of  persecution  their  very  lives  rather  than 
transgress  the  slightest  law,  as  such  a  transgression  at 
such  a  time  involved  the  sin  of  profaning  the  Holy 
Name,  and  may  be  taken  as  a  sign  of  apostasy  or  be- 
trayal of  the  kingdom.  For  they  are  indeed  the  very 
legions  of  the  kingdom.^ 

By  this  fact,  it  is  true,  the  kingdom  of  God  be- 
comes greatly  nationalised.  But  even  in  this  case  it 
loses  nothing  of  its  spiritual  features.     For  even  in  its 

1  See  Tosephta  Shabbath,  p.  134;  Agadath  Shir  Hashiri??i,  p.  34. 
See  also  above,  p.  81,  note  i. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD   (NATIONAL)  10$ 

identification  with  the  nation,  Israel  is  only  the  depos- 
itory of  the  kingdom,  not  the  exclusive  possessor  of  it. 
The  idea  of  the  kingdom  is  the  palladium  of  the  nation. 
According  to  some,  it  is  the  secret  which  has  come 
down  to  them  from  the  patriarchs ;  ^  according  to 
others,  the  holy  mystery  of  the  angels  overheard  by 
Moses,  which  Israel  continually  proclaims.^  It  has  to 
be  emphasised  in  every  prayer  and  benediction,^ 
whilst  the  main  distinction  of  the  most  solemn  prayers 
of  the  year  on  the  New  Year's  Day  consists,  as  we 
have  seen,  in  a  detailed  proclamation  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  in  all  stages  of  history,  past,  present,  and  future. 
''Before  we  appeal  to  his  mercy,"  teach  the  Rabbis, 
"and  before  we  pray  for  redemption,  we  must  first 
make  him  King  over  us."  ^  We  must  also  remember 
that  Israel  is  not  a  nation  in  the  common  sense  of  the 
word.  To  the  Rabbis,  at  least,  it  is  not  a  nation  by  vir- 
tue of  race  or  of  certain  peculiar  political  combinations. 
As  R.  Saadya  expressed  it,  '^  OH  r\t2)^  H^ri^  imi^SlK  "'D 
iTDI^liriD  ("Because  our  nation  is  only  a  nation  by  rea- 
son of  its  Torah").^  The  brutal  Torah-less  national- 
ism promulgated  in  certain  quarters,  would  have  been 
to  the  Rabbis  just  as  hateful  as  the  suicidal  Torah-less 
universalism  preached  in  other  quarters.  And  if  we 
could  imagine  for  a  moment  Israel  giving  up  its  allegiance 

1  See  Si/re,  72  i,  and  the  very  instructive  notes  by  the  editor. 

2  Deu^.  R.,  2.  3  See  Berachoth,  12  a. 

*  See  Sifre,  19  b,  and  Rosh  Hashanahy  16  a.     See  also  whole  extract 
from  the  liturgy  at  the  end  of  ch.  5. 

5  mirm  mjiDx,  3 : 7. 


lo6     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

to  God,  its  Torah  and  its  divine  institutions,  the  Rabbis 
would  be  the  first  to  sign  its  death-warrant  as  a  nation. 
The  prophecy  (Isa.445),  "Another  shall  subscribe  with 
his  hands  unto  the  Lord,"  means,  according  to  the  Rab- 
bis, the  sinners  who  return  unto  him  from  their  evil 
ways,  whilst  the  words,  "And  surname  himself  by  the 
name  of  Israel,"  are  explained  to  be  proselytes  who  leave 
the  heathen  world  to  join  Israel.^  It  is  then  by  these 
means  of  repentance  and  proselytism  that  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,  even  in  its  connection  with  Israel,  expands  into 
the  universal  kingdom  to  which  sinners  and  Gentiles 
are  invited.  It  becomes  a  sort  of  spiritual  imperialism 
with  the  necessary  accompaniment  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  "  Open  Door"  through  which  the  whole  of  humanity 
might  pass  into  the  kingdom.  "Open  ye  gates  that 
the  righteous  people  {Goi)  which  keepeth  the  truth 
may  enter  in"  (Isa.  26  2).  It  is  not  said  that  the 
Priests  or  the  Levites  or  the  Israelites  may  enter,  but 
Goi  (Gentile).  "Behold  even  one  of  other  nations  who 
fulfils  (the  laws  of)  the  Torah  is  (as  good)  as  the  very 
high  priest."  ^ 

The  antagonism  between  the  kingdom  of  God  and 
the  kingdom  of  Rome,  which  is  brought  about  by  the 
connection  of  the  former  with  that  of  Israel,  suggests 
also  a  most  important  truth:  Bad  government  is  in- 
compatible with  the  kingdom  of  God.     As  already  pointed 

1  Mechilta,  95  b  and  parallels. 

2  T.  K.,  86  b,  taking  the  word  ''l^  in  the  sense  of  heathen,  non-Jew, 
and  stranger.     See  also  below,  p.  133. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD   (NATIONAL)  107 

out  above,  it  is  not  the  form  of  the  Roman  Government 
to  which  objection  is  taken,  but  its  methods  of  ad- 
ministration and  its  oppressive  rule.  It  is  true  that 
they  tried  "to  render  unto  Caesar  the  things  that  were 
Caesar's,  and  unto  God  the  things  that  were  God's." 
Thus  they  interpreted  the  words  in  Ecclesiastes  8  2: 
"I  counsel  thee,  keep  the  king's  commandments  and 
that  in  regard  of  the  oath  of  God,"  in  the  following 
way:  ''I  take  an  oath  from  you,  not  to  rebel  against 
the  (Roman)  Government,  even  if  its  decrees  against 
you  should  be  most  oppressive;  for  you  have  to  keep 
the  king's  commands.  But  if  you  are  bidden  to  deny 
God  and  give  up  the  Torah,  then  obey  no  more."  And 
they  proceed  to  illustrate  it  by  the  example  of  Han- 
aniah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah,  who  are  made  to  say  to 
Nebuchadnezzar,  "  Thou  art  our  king  in  matters  con- 
cerning duties  and  taxes,  but  in  things  divine  thy  au- 
thority ceases,  and  therefore  'we  will  not  serve  thy 
gods,  nor  worship  the  golden  image  which  thou  hast 
put  up.'"^  But  compromises  forced  upon  them  by 
the  political  circumstances  of  the  time  must  not  be 
regarded  as  desirable  ideals  or  real  doctrine.  Apart 
from  the  question  as  to  the  exact  definition  of  things 
falling  within  the  respective  provinces  of  C^sar  and  of 
God  —  a  question  which,  after  eighteen  hundred  years' 
discussion,  is  still  unsettled  —  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  Rabbis  looked  with  dismay  upon  a  government 
which   derived   its   authority   from   the   deification   of 

1  See  Tan.,  TO,  10,  and  Lev.  R.,  ^:^  6.  Cf.  Num.  E.,  14  6. 


lo8     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

might,  whereof  the  emperor  was  the  incarnate  princi- 
ple. Edom  recognises  no  superior  authority,  saying, 
''Whom  have  I  in  heaven?"^  It  represents  iron 
(we  would  say  blood  and  iron),  a  metal  which  was 
excluded  from  the  tabernacle,  the  abode  of  the  divine 
peace,^  whilst  its  king  of  flesh  and  blood,  whom  Edom 
flatters  in  its  ovations  as  being  mighty,  wise,  powerful, 
merciful,  just,  and  faithful,  has  not  a  single  one  of  all 
these  virtues,  and  is  even  the  very  reverse  of  what  they 
express.^ 

But  besides  these  differences  the  Rabbis  held  the 
Roman  Government  to  be  thoroughly  corrupt  in  its 
administration;  Esau  preaches  justice  and  practises 
violence.  Their  judges  commit  the  very  crimes  for 
which  they  condemn  others.  They  pretend  to  pun- 
ish crime,  but  are  reconciled  to  it  by  bribery.  Their 
motives  are  selfish,  never  drawing  men  near  to  them, 
except  in  their  own  interest  and  for  their  own  ad- 
vantage. As  soon  as  they  see  a  man  in  a  state  of 
prosperity,  they  devise  means  how  to  possess  themselves 
of  his  goods.  In  a  word,  Esau  is  rapacious  and  violent, 
especially  the  procurators  sent  out  to  the  provinces, 
where  they  rob  and  murder,  and  when  they  return  to 
Rome  pretend  to  feed  the  poor  with  the  money  they 
have  collected.^     Such  a  government  was,  according 

1  Lev.  ^.,  13  5.         2  See  Exod.  R.,  35  r.         ^  Mechilta,  35  a. 

4  See  Lev.  R.,  ibid.;  A  both,  2  3;  Exod.  i?.,  31  11;  P.  K.  95  b. 
Interesting  is  a  passage  in  Mommsen's  History  of  Rome,  4,  which  shows 
that  the  Rabbis  did  not  greatly  exaggerate  the  cruelty  of  the  Roman 


THE  KINGDOM   OF  GOD   (NATIONAL)  109 

to  the  Rabbis,  incompatible  with  the  kingdom  of  heaven, 
and  therefore  the  mission  of  Israel  was  to  destroy  it/ 

Another  essential  addition  made  to  the  kingdom  of 
God  by  its  connection  with  the  kingdom  of  Israel  is,  as 
already  indicated,  the  feature  of  material  happiness.  Pop- 
ular fancy  pictured  it  in  gorgeous  colours :  The  rivers  will 
flow  with  wine  and  honey,  the  trees  will  grow  bread  and 
delicacies,  whilst  in  certain  districts  springs  will  break 
forth  which  will  prove  cures  for  all  sorts  of  diseases. 
Altogether,  disease  and  suffering  will  cease,  and  those 
who  come  into  the  kingdom  with  bodily  defects,  such 
as  blindness,  deafness,  and  other  blemishes,  will  be 
healed.  Men  will  multiply  in  a  way  not  at  all  agree- 
able to  the  laws  of  political  economy,  and  will  enjoy 
a  very  long  life,  if  they  will  die  at  all.  War  will,  of 
course,  disappear,  and  warriors  will  look  upon  their 
weapons  as  a  reproach  and  an  offence.  Even  the 
rapacious  beasts  will  lose  their  powers  of  doing  injury, 
and  will  become  peaceful  and  harmless.^  Such  are  the 
details  in  which  the  Rabbis  indulge  in  their  descriptions 

Government.  "  Any  one  who  desires,"  says  our  greatest  historian  of 
Rome,  "  to  fathom  the  depths  to  which  men  can  sink  in  the  criminal 
infliction,  and  in  the  no  less  criminal  endurance  of  an  inconceivable 
injustice,  may  gather  together  from  the  criminal  records  of  this  period 
the  wrongs  which  Roman  grandees  could  perpetuate,  and  Greeks, 
Syrians,  and  Phoenicians  could  suffer."  Cf.  Joel's  Blicke,  i.  109.  How 
far  matters  improved  under  the  emperors,  at  least  with  regard  to  the 
Jews,  is  still  a  question. 

1  Berachoth,  I J  a.     See  Rabbinowicz,  Variae  Lectiones,  a. I. 

2  See,  for  instance,  Kethiiboih,  1 1 1  ^  ;  Shabbath,  63  a  ;  Gen.  v^.,  12  «; 
M.H.G.^i  126  seq. ;   see  also  Klausner  (as  above,  p.  loi),  p.  108  seq. 


no     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

of  the  blissful  times  to  come.  We  need  not  dwell  upon 
them.  There  is  much  in  them  which  is  distasteful  and 
childish.  Still,  when  we  look  at  the  underlying  idea, 
we  shall  find  that  it  is  not  without  its  spiritual  truth. 
The  kingdom  of  God  is  inconsistent  with  a  state  of 
social  misery,  engendered  through  poverty  and  want. 
Not  that  Judaism  looked  upon  poverty,  as  some  author 
has  suggested,  as  a  moral  vice.  Nothing  can  be  a 
greater  mistake.  The  Rabbis  were  themselves  mostly 
recruited  from  the  artisan  and  labouring  classes,  and 
of  some  we  know  that  they  lived  in  the  greatest  want. 
Certain  Rabbis  have  even  maintained  that  there  is  no 
quality  becoming  Israel  more  than  poverty,  for  it  is  a 
means  of  spiritual  purification.^  Still,  they  did  not 
hide  from  themselves  the  terrible  fact  that  abject 
poverty  has  its  great  demoralising  dangers.  It  is  one 
of  the  three  things  which  make  man  transgress  the  law 
of  his  Maker.2 

But  even  if  poverty  would  not  have  this  effect,  it 
would  be  excluded  from  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  as 
involving  pain  and  suffering.  The  poor  man,  they 
hold,  is  dead  as  an  influence,  and  his  whole  life,  de- 
pending upon  his  fellows,  is  a  perpetual  passing  through 
the  tortures  of  hell.^  But  it  is  a  graceful  world  which 
God  has  created,  and  it  must  not  be  disfigured  by  misery 
and  suffering.  It  must  return  to  its  perfect  state 
when  the  visible  kingdom  is  established.     As  we  shall 

1  Chagigah,  ^  b.  ^  Erubin,  ^l  b. 

3  Nedarintf  7  b,  and  Berachoth,  6  b. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GOD   (NATIONAL)  iii 

see  in  the  sequence/  Judaism  was  certainly  not  wanting 
in  theories,  idealising  suffering  and  trying  to  reconcile 
man  with  its  existence.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
did  not  recognise  a  chasm  between  flesh  and  spirit,  the 
material  and  the  spiritual  world,  so  as  to  abandon 
entirely  the  one  for  the  sake  of  the  other.  They  are 
both  the  creatures  of  God,  the  body  as  well  as  the 
soul,  and  hence  both  the  objects  of  his  salvation. 

To  a  certain  Jewish  mystic  of  the  last  century, 
R.  Moses  Loeb,  of  Sasow,  the  question  was  put  by  one 
of  his  disciples  to  the  effect,  "Why  did  God,  in  whom 
everything  originates,  create  the  quality  of  scepticism?" 
The  master's  answer  was,  "That  thou  mayest  not  let 
the  poor  starve,  putting  them  off  with  the  joys  of  the 
next  world,  or  simply  telling  them  to  trust  in  God,  who 
will  help  them,  instead  of  supplying  them  with  food."  ^ 

We  venture  to  maintain  with  the  mystic  that  a  good 
dose  of  materialism  is  necessary  for  religion  that  we 
may  not  starve  the  world.  It  was  by  this  that  Judaism 
was  preserved  from  the  mistake  of  crying  inward  peace, 
when  actually  there  was  no  peace;  of  speaking  of  in- 
ward liberty,  when  in  truth  this  spiritual  but  spurious 
liberty  only  served  as  a  means  for  persuading  man  to 
renounce  his  liberty  altogether,  confining  the  kingdom 
of  God  to  a  particular  institution  and  handing  over 
the  world  to  the  devil. 

1  See  below,  p.  309. 

2  See  D'^p'^li:  T\]DVf2,  Lemberg,  1897,  P-  39,  which  differs  somewhat 
from  the  version  I  have  heard  often  told,  and  which  is  given  in  the 
text. 


112      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  the  charity  system 
of  the  Rabbis,  nor  to  enlarge  upon  the  measures  taken 
by  them  so  as  to  make  charity  superfluous.  But  having 
touched  upon  the  subject  of  poverty,  a  few  general 
remarks  will  not  be  out  of  place.  In  that  brilliant  essay 
known  under  the  title  of  Ecce  Homo,  we  meet  the 
following  statement:  ''The  ideal  of  the  economist, 
the  ideal  of  the  Old  Testament  writers,  does  not  appear 
to  be  Christ's.  He  feeds  the  poor,  but  it  is  not  his  great 
object  to  bring  about  a  state  of  things  in  which  the 
poorest  shall  be  sure  of  a  meal."  But  it  was  just  this 
which  was  included  in  the  ideal  of  the  Rabbis.  They 
were  not  satisfied  with  feeding  the  poor.  Not  only 
did  they  make  the  authorities  of  every  community 
responsible  for  the  poor,  and  would  even  stigmatise 
them  as  murderers  if  their  negligence  should  lead  to 
starvation  and  death ;  ^  but  their  great  ideal  was  not  to 
allow  man  to  be  poor,  not  to  allow  him  to  come  down 
into  the  depths  of  poverty.  They  say,  ''Try  to  prevent 
it  by  teaching  him  a  trade,  or  by  occupying  him  in 
your  house  as  a  servant,  or  make  him  work  with  you  as 
your  partner."  ^  Try  all  methods  before  you  permit 
him  to  become  an  object  of  charity,  which  must  de- 
grade him,  tender  as  our  dealings  with  him  may  be. 

Hence  their  violent  protests  against  any  sort  of 
money   speculation   which   must   result   in   increasing 

1  See  B.  T.  Sotah,  38  b,  and  Jer.  Sotah,  23  d. 

2  See  T.  K.,  109  b,  and  Maimonides'  Mishneh  Torah,  niDn^  r\^'2hr^ 
yn  f,-i«|  y/,-|  v/Q  D"'''il?.     See  also  the  older  commentaries  on  Aboih,  i  5. 


THE  KINGDOM  O^F  GOD   (NATIONAL)  113 

poverty  :  Thou  lendest  him  money  on  the  security 
of  his  estate  with  the  object  of  joining  his  field  to  thine, 
his  house  to  thine,  and  thou  flatterest  thyself  to  become 
the  heir  of  the  land;  be  sure  of  a  truth  that  many 
houses  will  be  desolate/  Those  again  who  increase 
the  price  of  food  by  artificial  means,  who  give  false 
measure,  who  lend  on  usury,  and  keep  back  the  corn 
from  the  market,  are  classed  by  the  Rabbis  with  the 
blasphemers  and  hypocrites,  and  God  will  never  forget 
their  works.^ 

To  the  employers  of  workmen  again  they  say: 
"This  poor  man  ascends  the  highest  scaffoldings,  climbs 
the  highest  trees.  For  what  does  he  expose  himself 
to  such  dangers,  if  not  for  the  purpose  of  earning  his 
living?  Be  careful,  therefore,  not  to  oppress  him 
in  his  wages,  for  it  means  his  very  life."  ^  On  the 
other  hand,  they  relieved  the  workman  from  reciting 
certain  prayers  when  they  interfered  with  his  duty  to 
his  master.^ 

From  this  consideration  for  the  employer  and  the 
employed  a  whole  set  of  laws  emanate  which  try  to 
regulate  their  mutual  relations  and  duties.  How  far 
they  would  satisfy  the  modern  economist  I  am  unable 
to  say.  In  general  I  should  think  that,  excellent  as 
they  may  have  been  for  their  own  times,  they  would  not 

1  See  Introduction  to  Midrash  to  Lament.  R.,  22,  on  Isa.  5  8. 

2  See  A.  R.  N.,  43  b  ;   Baba  Bathra,  90  a. 

3  See  Sifre,  123  b^  and  B.  Mezia,  and  Berachoih,  16  a. 
*  Berachoth,  i*]  a. 

I 


114     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

quite  answer  to  our  altered  conditions  and  ever  varying 
problems.  But  this  need  not  prevent  us  from  perceiv- 
ing, in  any  efforts  to  diminish  poverty,  a  divine  work  to 
which  they  also  contributed  their  share.  For  if  the 
disappearance  of  poverty  and  suffering  is  a  condition 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  or,  in  other  words,  of 
the  kingdom  of  God,  all  wise  social  legislation  in  this 
respect  must  help  towards  its  speedy  advent. 

It  is  this  kingdom,  as  depicted  in  the  preceding  re- 
marks in  its  larger  features,  with  both  its  material  and 
spiritual  manifestations,  that  Israel  is  to  express  and 
establish.  With  this,  it  enters  upon  the  stage  of  his- 
tory. With  its  varying  fortunes  its  own  destiny  is 
inseparably  connected ;  and  with  Israel's  final  triumph, 
the  kingdom  will  become  fully  effective.  Or,  as  the 
Rabbis  expressed  it,  it  is  only  "with  the  redemption  of 
Israel  that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  will  be  complete." 
Israel  is  the  microcosm  in  which  all  the  conditions  of 
the  kingdom  are  to  find  concrete  expression.  In  the 
establishment  of  its  institutions,  in  the  reign  of  its  law, 
in  the  peace  and  happiness  of  its  people,  the  world 
would  find  the  prototype  and  manifestation  of  these 
ideals  in  which  universal  holiness  would  be  expressed. 
w  Not  until  these  conditions  were  realised  in  Israel  could 
like  conditions  obtain  universally.  The  Rabbis  have 
given  expression  to  this  correspondence  of  universalistic 
and  national  elements  in  the  following  statement:  A 
solemn  declaration  has  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
registered:  I  will   not  enter  the  heavenly  Jerusalem 


THE  KINGDOM   OF  GOD   (NATIONAL)  115 

until  Israel  shall  come  to  the  earthly  Jerusalem.  Thus 
Rabbinic  Judaism  does  find  a  perfect  consonance  be- 
tween Israel's  establishment  of  the  divine  institutions 
in  their  full  integrity  in  God's  own  land,  and  the 
triumph  in  all  its  glory  of  the  kingdom  of  Heaven/ 

1  See  M.  T.f  99  1.     See  also  Taaniihy  5  b.     The  references  speak  of 
the  oath. 


VIII 
THE   "LAW 

•  The  Law  derives  its  authority  from  the  kingdom. 
For  this,  according  to  the  Rabbis,  is  the  meaning  of 
the  scriptural  words,  ''I  am  the  Lord  thy  God,"  or 
''The  Lord  your  God,"  with  which  certain  groups  of 
laws  are  introduced  (e.g.  Exod.  222  and  Lev.  182); 
that  is,  God  makes  his  people  conscious  of  the  fact 
of  his  claims  on  them  because  of  their  having  received 
his  kingdom,  saying  unto  them,  "You  have  received 
my  kingdom  in  love."  "Aye"  and  "Aye"  answers 
Israel,  wherefore  God  says,  "If  you  have  received  my 
kingdom,  you  receive  now  my  decrees."  ^ 

Now  the  current  notions  about  the  Law  or  Torah 
are  still  so  misleading  that  before  entering  upon  the 
meaning  and  theological  significance  of  the  "decrees," 
a  brief  analysis  of  the  term  Torah  seems  most  ad- 
visable. Even  the  hypothesis  advanced  by  higher 
criticism,  according  to  which  it  was  just  under  the 
predominance  of  the  Law  that  the  Wisdom  Literature 
was  composed  and  most  of  the  Psalms  were  written, 
had  no  effect  on  the  general  prejudice  of  theologians 
against  the  Torah.     With  a  few  exceptions  our  theo- 

1  T.  K.y  85  d\  Mechilta,  67  ^,  67  b. 
116 


THE  "LAW  117 

logians  still  enlarge  upon  the  "Night  of  Legalism," 
from  the  darkness  of  which  reUgion  only  emerges  by 
a  miracle  supposed  to  have  taken  place  about  the  year 
30  of  our  era.^ 

An  examination  of  the  meaning  of  Tor  ah  and  Miz- 
voth  to  the  Jew  will  show  that  Legalism  was  neither 
the  evil  thing  commonly  imagined  nor  did  it  lead  to  the 
evil  consequences  assumed  by  our  theologians.  Nor 
has  it  ever  constituted  the  whole  religion  of  the  Jew,  as 
declared  by  most  modern  critics. 

It  must  first  be  stated  that  the  term  Law  or 
Nomas  is  not  a  correct  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Torah.  The  legalistic  element,  which  might 
rightly  be  called  the  Law,  represents  only  one  side  of 
the  Torah.  To  the  Jew  the  word  Torah  means  a 
teaching  or  an  instruction  of  any  kind.  It  may  be 
either  a  general  principle  or  a  specific  injunction, 
whether  it  be  found  in  the  Pentateuch  or  in  other 
parts  of  the  Scriptures,  or  even  outside  of  the  canon. 
The  juxtaposition  in  which  Torah  and  Mizwoth, 
Teaching  and  Commandments,  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Rabbinic  literature,  implies  already  that  the  former 
means  something  more  than  merely  the  Law.^  Torah 
and  Mitzvoth  are  a  complement  to  each  other,  or,  as 
a  Rabbi  expressed  it,  ''they  borrow  from  each  other, 
as  wisdom  and   understanding  —  charity  and  loving- 

1  See  Mr.  Israel  Abrahsims, /ewisk  Quarterly  Review ,  ii :  626-642. 
See  also  Schechter,  Studies  in  Judaism,  p.  219  seq. 

2  See,  for  instance,  Berachoth,  31  a ;  Makkoth,  2t^  a  ;  Aboth,  3  11. 


Ii8     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

kindness  —  the  moon  and  the  stars,"  but  they  are 
not  identical/  To  use  the  modern  phraseology,  to  the 
Rabbinic  Jew,  Torah  was  both  an  institution  and  a 
faith.  We  shall  treat  them  separately:  first  Torah, 
and  then  the  Mitzvoth. 

It  is  true  that  in  Rabbinic  literature  the  term  Torah 
is  often  applied  to  the  Pentateuch  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  Prophets  and  the  Hagiographa.^  But  this  is  chiefly 
for  the  purpose  of  classification.  It  is  also  true  that 
to  a  certain  extent  the  Pentateuch  is  put  on  a  higher 
level  than  the  Prophets  —  the  prophetic  vision  of  Moses 
having  been,  as  the  Rabbis  avow,  much  clearer  than 
that  of  his  successors.^  But  we  must  not  forget  that 
for  the  superiority  of  the  Torah,  they  had  the  scriptural 
authority  of  the  Torah  itself  (Num.  12  6-8,  Deut. 
34  10),  whilst  on  the  other  hand  they  could  not 
find  in  the  Prophets  anything  deprecatory  of  Moses' 
superior  authority.  They  may,  occasionally,  have 
felt  some  contradictions  between  the  Prophets  and  the 
Torah,  but  only  in  matters  of  detail,  not  in  matters  of 
principle.^ 

1  See  Exod.  R.,  31  15. 

2  See,  for  instance,  Megillah,  31  a ;  Baba  Bathra,  13  b,  and 
elsewhere. 

2  ^te.  /eba}?ioth,  49  b  ;  Lev.  R.,  i. 

*  See  the  well-known  passages  about  Ezekiel  in  Shabbaih,  13  <5,  and 
Menachoth,  45  a.  The  contradictions  are  there  reconciled  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  the  Rabbis  at  least.  See  also  below,  p.  187,  A  contradic- 
tion which  they  did  not  try  to  reconcile  was  that  between  Isa.  6  1, 
"  I  saw  the  Lord  sitting  upon  a  throne,"  and  Moses  in  Exod.  2)2)  20, 
"For  there  shall  no  man  see  me,  and  live"  (^Jebatnoth^  49  ^).     See 


THE   "LAW"  119 

Of  any  real  antagonism  between  Mosaism  and 
"  Leviticalism "  and  Prophetism,  which  modern  criti- 
cism asserts  to  have  brought  to  light,  the  Rabbis  were 
absolutely  unconscious.  With  the  Rabbis,  the  Proph-  -» 
ets  formed  only  a  complement  or  even  a  commen- 
tary to  the  Torah  (a  species  of  Agadah),  which, 
indeed,  needed  explanation,  as  we  shall  see.  Hence 
the  naivete,  as  we  may  almost  call  it,  with  which  the 
Rabbis  chose,  for  reading  on  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
the  58th  chapter  of  Isaiah  —  one  of  the  most  prophetic 
pieces  of  prophetism  —  as  the  accompanying  lesson  for 
the  portion  from  the  Pentateuch,  Leviticus  16  —  the 
most  Levitical  piece  in  Leviticalism. 

But  even  the  Pentateuch  is  no  mere  legal  code, 
without  edifying  elements  in  it.  The  Book  of  Genesis, 
the  greater  part  of  Exodus,  and  even  a  part  of  Numbers 
are  simple  history,  recording  the  past  of  humanity 
on  its  way  to  the  kingdom,  culminating  in  Israel's 
entering  it  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  their  subsequent 
relapses.  The  Book  of  Deuteronomy,  as  the  ''Book 
containing  the  words  of  exhortation"  (Tochachoth),^ 
forms  Israel's  Imitatio  Dei,  consisting  chiefly  in  good- 
ness,^ and  supplying  to  Israel  its  confession  of  faith 
(in  the  Shema) ;  whilst  the  Book  of  Leviticus  —  marvel 

Jolowicz's  Himmelfahrt,  etc.,  des  Propheten  Jesaiah,  p.  7,  Leipzig,  1854. 
But  it  is  significant  that  it  is  the  wicked  Manasseh  who  saw  this  con- 
tradiction. 

1  Sifre,  64  a. 

2  See  Sifre,  74  a,  85  a ;  Mechiltay  yj  a  and  parallels.  See  also 
below,  p.  200. 


I20      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

upon  marvel  —  first  proclaims  that  principle  of  loving 
one's  neighbour  as  one's  self  (Lev.  19  is)  which 
believers  call  Christianity,  unbelievers,  Humanity. 

The  language  of  the  Midrash  would  seem  to  imply 
that  at  a  certain  period  there  were  people  who  held  the 
narratives  of  the  Bible  in  slight  estimation,  looking 
upon  them  as  fictions  (Piyutim)  and  useless  stories. 
The  Rabbis,  however,  reject  such  a  thought  with 
indignation.  To  them  the  whole  of  the  Torah  repre- 
sented the  word  of  God,  dictated  by  the  Holy  Spirit, 
suggesting  edifying  lessons  everywhere,  and  embodying 
even  while  it  speaks  of  the  past,  a  history  of  humanity 
written  in  advance.^  ''The  Book  of  Generations  of 
Adam,"  that  is,  the  history  of  the  Genesis,  in  which 
the  dignity  of  man  is  indicated  by  the  fact  of  his  having 
been  created  in  the  image  of  God,  teaches,  according 
to  Ben  Azai,  even  a  greater  principle  than  that  of 
Lev.  19,  in  which  the  law  of  loving  one's  neighbour  as 
oneself  is  contained.^  Another  Rabbi  deduces  from 
the  repetitions  in  Gen.  24  the  theory  that  the  con- 
versation of  the  servants  of  the  patriarchs  is  more 
beautiful  than  the  laws  even  of  later  generations.^ 
Another  Rabbi  remarks  that  the  Torah  as  a  legal  code 
would  only  have  commenced  with  Exod.  12,  where 
the  first  (larger)  group  of  laws  is  set  forth,  but  God's 
object  was  to  show  his  people  the  power  of  his  work, 

1  See  Gen.  R.,  85  2;   Sifre,  33  a  ;   Sanhedrin,  99  <^;   M.  T.,  3  2. 

2  T.  K.,  89  b,  and  parallels.     Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.y  I  720. 
*  Gen.  R.y  60  8. 


THE  ''LAW"  121 

"that  he  may  give  them  the  inheritance  of  the  heathen" 
(Ps.  Ill  6),  and  thus,  in  the  end,  justify  the  later 
history  of  their  conquests/ 

The  Book  of  Genesis,  which  contains  the  history 
of  this  manifestation  of  God's  powers,  as  revealed  in 
the  act  of  creation  as  well  as  in  the  history  of  the  patri- 
archs, and  leads  up  to  the  story  of  the  Exodus  from 
Egypt,  is,  according  to  some  Rabbis,  the  book  of  the 
covenant  which  Moses  read  to  the  people  (Exod.  24  7) 
even  before  the  act  of  revelation.  To  come  into  the 
possession  of  this  book  (the  Book  of  Genesis),  which 
unlocked  before  them  one  of  the  inner  chambers 
of  the  king  (or  revealed  to  them  the  holy  mysteries 
of  God's  working  in  the  world),  was  considered  by  the 
Rabbis  one  of  the  greatest  privileges  of  Israel,  given 
to  them  as  a  reward  for  their  submission  to  God's 
will.^ 

Thus  Torah,  even  as  represented  by  the  Pentateuch, 
is  not  mere  Law,  the  Rabbis  having  discerned  and 
appreciated  in  it  other  than  merely  legal  elements. 
Moreover,  the  term  Torah  is  not  always  confined  to 
the  Pentateuch.  It  also  extends,  as  already  indicated, 
to  the  whole  of  the  Scriptures  on  which  the  Rabbis 
"laboured"  with  the  same  spirit  and  devotion  as  on 
the  Pentateuch.  For  indeed  "the  Torah  is  a  triad, 
composed  of  Pentateuch,  Prophets,  and  Hagiographa." 
"Have  I  not  written  to  thee  the  three  things  in  counsels 

1  See  Tan.  B.,  i  4  a,    Cf.  Rashi  to  Gen.  i  i. 

2  See  Mechilta,  63  b.     Cf.  Cant.  R.,  i  4,  on  r"nn  "jb>)an  ''3K^an. 


122     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

and  in  knowledge?"^  That  lessons  from  the  Prophets 
almost  always  accompanied  those  taken  from  the 
Pentateuch  is  a  well-known  fact,^  as  likewise  that  the 
Talmid  Chacham,  or  the  student,  had  to  beautify 
himself  with  the  knowledge  of  the  twenty-four  books 
of  which  the  Bible  consists,  even  as  a  bride  adorns 
herself  with  twenty-four  different  kinds  of  orna- 
ments.^ That  this  injunction  was  strictly  fulfilled 
by  the  student  is  clear  from  the  facility  and  fre- 
quency with  which  the  Rabbis  quoted  the  Prophets 
and  the  Hagiographa.  A  striking  instance  may  be 
seen  in  the  Mechilta,  a  small  work  of  not  more  than 
about  seventy  octavo  pages  when  stripped  from  its 
commentaries;  it  has  about  one  thousand  citations 
from  the  Prophets  and  the  Hagiographa. 

"The  sinners  in  Israel"  (probably  referring  to  the 
Samaritans),  the  Rabbis  complain,  "contend  that 
the  Prophets  and  the  Hagiographa  are  not  Torah, 
but  are  they  not  already  refuted  by  Daniel  (9  10), 
who  said,  'Neither  have  we  obeyed  the  voice  of  the 
Lord  our  God,  to  walk  in  his  Toroth  which  he  set  before 
us  by  his  servants  the  prophets.'"  Hence,  the  Rabbis 
proceed  to  say,  Asaph's  exclamation  in  Ps.  78, 
"Give  ear,  O  my  people,  to  my  Toroth."  ^    Note,  in 

1  See  Tan.,  B.  2  S7  a  (§8),  and  Midrash  Frov.,  22  19,  text  and 
notes,  urging  the  W"'^'h'<D. 

2  See  Zunz,  Gottesdienstliche  Vortrage,  p.  3  (2d  ed.),  and  Schiirer's 
Geschichte,  2  380f.  ^  See  Exod.  R.,  41  5. 

4  See  M.  T.,  78  1,  and  Tan.y  n«"l,  i.  Cf.  Bacher,  Terminolo- 
gie,  2  31. 


THE   ''LAW"  123 

passing,  that  this  Psalm,  which  claims  to  be  Torah,  is 
nothing  but  a  resume  of  Israel's  history.  With  the 
Rabbinic  Jews,  the  Hagiographa  formed  an  integral 
part  of  their  holy  Scriptures.  "The  prophets  of  truth 
and  righteousness"  were,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  bene- 
diction preceding  the  weekly  lesson  from  the  Prophets, 
God's  chosen  ones,  in  the  same  way  as  the  Torah, 
as  his  servant  Moses,  and  his  people  Israel  —  the 
depository  of  revelation.^  In  olden  times  they  had  even 
a  special  benediction  before  they  began  to  read  either 
the  Prophets  or  the  Hagiographa,  running  thus, 
"  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  who  hast  com-  ■ 
manded  us  to  read  the  holy  writings."  ^  This  was  quite 
in  accordance  with  their  principle  regarding  prophecy 
as  "the  word  of  God,"  ^  and  the  continuation  of  his 
voice  heard  on  Mount  Sinai,^  a  voice  which  will  cease 
only  with  the  Messianic  times,  —  perhaps  for  the 
reason  that  the  earth  will  be  full  of  the  knowledge  of 
God  and  all  the  people  of  the  Lord  will  be  prophets.^ 

1  See  Baer,  p.  226.     In  Masecheth  Soferim,  ch.  XIII,  the  words 
liay  bKltr'm  are  omitted. 

2  See  Masecheth  Soferim,  ch.  XIV,  and  Notes,  p.  188. 

3  Shabbath,  138^. 

*  See  Sifre,  92  a,  and  parallels  given  in  the  Notes.     MHG.,  iSlpHI 

VH^S3  "^ipn  ii;x:un.    cf.  ibid.  114  a,  bi?  nT,^i  nnin  nm  bu  miD 

D^«^n2n  •'-im.  See  also  Sifre,  135  b,  DHK  xhs^  \r\  n^inS  133  UtT'On 
"  Lord  of  the  world,  thou  hast  written,  If  a  man  put  away  his  wife,"  etc., 
which  is  a  verse  in  Jer.  3  1.  Cf.  Blau,  Zur  Einleitung  in  die  Heilige 
Schrift,  p.  14.     See  also  Bacher,  Terniinologie,  I  197;   2  229. 

^  See/er.  Megillah,  70  d,  and  the  commentaries.     Cf.  also  Maimoni- 
des'  Mishneh  Torah,  HSISm  nb'J^  t\y2bT\,  2  is,  and  the  -0"K-in  Wtt^n. 


124     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Says  R.  Isaac,  ''All  that  the  Prophets  will  reveal  in 
(succeeding)  generations  had  been  received  by  them 
on  Mount  Sinai."  "And  so  he  says,  'The  burden  of 
the  word  of  the  Lord  to  Israel  by  the  hand  of 
Malachi.'  It  is  not  said  ^  In  the  days  of  Malachi,'' 
for  the  prophecy  was  already  in  his  hands  (since  the 
revelation)  on  Mount  Sinai."  And  so  Isaiah,  "From 
the  time  that  it  (the  Torah)  was  (revealed)  I  was 
there,"  and  received  this  prophecy,  "but  it  is  now 
that  the  Lord  God  and  his  spirit  has  sent  me."  ^ 

It  is  in  harmony  with  this  spirit  —  the  Prophets  and 
the  Hagiographa  being  a  part  of  Israel's  Torah  —  that 
the  former  are  cited  in  Rabbinic  literature  with  the 
terms  "for  it  is  said"  or  "it  is  written"  in  the  same 
ways  as  the  Pentateuch.  Again,  in  the  well-known 
controversy  about  the  scriptural  authority  for  the 
belief    in    resurrection,    both    the    Prophets    and    the 

The  special  emphasis  of  the  Jerushalmi  of  the  Pentateuch's  retaining 
its  importance  even  after  the  Messiah  has  come,  is,  as  is  well  known, 
the  result  of  the  opposition  to  sectarian  teaching,  demanding  the  abo- 
lition of  the  Law.  The  answer  of  the  Rabbis  was  therefore  that  even 
the  authority  of  the  Messiah  himself  will  not  prevail  against  that  of 
Moses.  In  this  sense  also  —  as  opposition  to  this  teaching  —  must 
be  understood  the  passage  in  Jer.  Berachoth,  3  b  and  parallels,  where 
the  prophet,  so  to  say,  is  required  to  bring  his  imprimatur  from  the 
Torah,  DniH  h^  jniDSbDI  h^,  the  prophet  without  such  a  legiti- 
mation being  very  probably  an  antinomianist.  Hence  also  the  effort 
made  by  the  Rabbis  to  prove  that  the  Pentateuch  already  indicated 
the  teachings  of  the  Kethubim.     See  Taanith,  g  a. 

1  See  Lev.  R.,  28  6  and  commentaries.  Cf.  Oppenheim  in  Geiger's 
Jiidische  Zeitschrift,  11,  p.  82  seq.  See  also  Frankl  in  Ersch  und 
Grubevy  2  sec,  Bd.  ^;^,  pp.  15-34. 


THE  "LAW 


25 


Hagiographa  are  quoted  under  the  name  of  Torah; 
and  the  evidence  brought  forward  by  them  seems  to 
be  of  as  much  weight  as  that  derived  from  the  Penta- 
teuch.^ In  the  New  Testament  they  also  occasionally 
appear  under  the  title  of  Nomos  or  Law.  To  the  Jew, 
as  already  pointed  out,  the  term  Torah  implied  a 
teaching  or  instruction,  and  was  therefore  wide  enough 
to  embrace  the  whole  of  the  Scriptures.^ 

In  a  certain  manner  it  is  extended  even  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Scriptures.     When  certain  Jewish  Bos- 

'^  Sanhedrin,  91  b  ;  see  also  Mechilta,  34^,  40  (5.  Cf.  Blau,  as 
above,  pp.  16,  17.  For  more  instances,  see  D'K''n3  fllin  by  R.  Hirsch 
Chajas,  pp.  2  a  and  ^,  5  ^z,  9  a,  10  b.  This  book  contains  the  best  expo- . 
sition  of  the  Rabbinical  conception  of  the  importance  of  the  Prophets  j 
both  from  a  Halachic  and  Hagadic  point  of  view,  and  their  relation  to 
the  Pentateuch.  The  student  will  find  that  a  good  deal  that  was 
written  on  the  subject  by  other  writers  is  mere  talk  due  to  the  ignorance 
of  Rabbinic  literature. 

2  See  Schurer's  Geschichte,  2  253,  note  17,  for  the  references  from  the 
New  Testament.  Following  Weber  (p.  79),  Schiirer  seizes  the  oppor- 
tunity of  making  the  remark  that  there  is  perhaps  nothing  more  char- 
acteristic of  the  full  appreciation  of  their  importance  on  the  part  of 
the  Jews  than  that  they  too  (the  Prophets  and  the  Hagiographa)  were 
not  first  of  all  to  the  Jewish  conviction  didactic  or  consolatory  works, 
not  books  of  edification  or  history,  but  were  considered  chiefly  as  Law, 
the  substance  of  God's  claim  upon  his  people.  So  far  Schiirer,  which 
of  course  only  proves  again  to  what  misconception  the  rendering  of 
Torah  by  Law  must  lead.  Besides,  we  find  that  the  Rabbis  had  such 
specification  for  the  various  books  in  the  Bible  as  a''"i^?2  nK''2i''  "IBD  for 
the  Exodus  (see  Blau,  as  above),  mnSin  for  Deuteronomy  (see 
above).  The  Psalms  again  are  called  the  Book  of  Praises  or  Hymn 
Book,  whilst  the  whole  of  the  Kethtibityt  are  the  Books  of  Wisdom  {P. 
K.,  158 (^),  and  Isaiah  was  chiefly  characterised  as  the  "work  of  con- 
solation" (^Baba  Bathra,  14  a). 


126     SOME  ASPECTS  OF   RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

wells  apologised  for  observing  the  private  life  of  their 
masters  too  closely,  they  said,  "It  is  a  Torah,  which 
we  are  desirous  of  learning."  ^  In  this  sense  it  is  used 
by  another  Rabbi,  who  maintained  that  even  the  every- 
day talk  of  the  people  in  the  Holy  Land  is  a  Torah 
(that  is,  it  conveys  an  object  lesson).  For  the  poor 
man  in  Palestine,  when  applying  to  his  neighbour  for 
relief,  was  wont  to  say,  "Acquire  for  thyself  merit,  or 
strengthen  and  purify  thyself"  (by  helping  me) ;  ^ 
thus  implying  the  adage  —  that  the  man  in  want  is 
just  as  much  performing  an  act  of  charity  in  receiv- 
ing as  his  benefactor  in  giving.  In  the  east  of  Europe 
we  can,  even  to-day,  hear  a  member  of  the  congregation 
addressing  his  minister,  "Pray,  tell  me  some  Torah." 
The  Rabbi  would  never  answer  him  by  reciting  verses 
from  the  Bible,  but  would  feel  it  incumbent  on  him  to 
give  him  some  spiritual  or  allegorical  explanation  of 
a  verse  from  the  Scriptures,  or  would  treat  him  to  some 
general  remarks  bearing  upon  morals   and   conduct. 

1  Berachoth,  62  a.     See  also  Chajas,  as  above,  2  b. 

2  Lev.  E.,  34  7. 


IX 


THE  LAW   AS   PERSONIFIED   IN    THE 
LITERATURE 

To  return  to  Torah  proper.  It  is  the  Torah  as  the 
sum  total  of  the  contents  of  revelation,  without  special 
regard  to  any  particular  element  in  it,  the  Torah  as  a 
faith,  that  is  so  dear  to  the  Rabbi.  It  is  the  Torah  in 
this  abstract  sense,  as  a  revelation  and  a  promise,  the 
expression  of  the  will  of  God,  which  is  identified  with 
the  wisdom  of  Prov.  8,  thus  gaining,  in  the  course  of 
history,  a  pre-mundane  existence,  which,  so  to  speak, 
formed  the  design  according  to  which  God  mapped  out 
the  world.  Said  Rabbi  Hoshayah,  "It  is  written  of 
Wisdom,  'Then  (before  the  world  was  created)  I  was 
with  him  amon,  and  was  daily  his  delight,  rejoicing 
always  before  him.'  The  word  amon  is  to  be  read 
uman,  meaning  architect.  For  as  a  king  employs  an 
architect  when  he  proposes  to  build  a  palace,  and  looks 
into  his  plans  and  designs  to  know  where  the  various 
recesses  and  chambers  shall  be  placed,  so  did  God  look 
into  the  Torah  when  he  was  about  to  create  the  world."  ^ 

1  See  Gen.  R.,  I  and  parallels.  Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Am.,  i  io7,  and  his 
references  to  Freudenthal  and  the  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  3 
357-360.  See  also  Professor  Cheynejyi?*^^^^/.^^?/^/^^^,  pp.  160-162.  See 
also  above,  p.  13,  note  4. 

127 


128     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

How  far  the  idea  is  originally  Jewish  is  not  here  the 
place  to  discuss.  Nor  is  its  meaning  quite  clear  when 
subject  to  an  analysis.  One  of  the  later  commen- 
tators of  the  Midrash  tries  to  connect  it  with  the 
D12i^^  theory,  that  is,  the  limitation-mystery  of  the 
later  cabalists,  according  to  which  the  act  of  creation 
was  an  effluence  of  God's  ineffable  goodness  and  mercy 
—  when  he  withdrew  himself  into  himself,  and  thus 
revealed  from  himself  the  imiverse.  But  it  is  not  quite 
clear  what  part  the  Torah  plays  in  this  mystical  sys- 
tem.^ As  far  as  any  definite  meaning  may  be  attached 
to  such  hazy  and  nebulous  ideas,  it  may  perhaps  be 
reduced  to  this:  that  the  Torah  having  been  long 
destined  to  become  a  main  factor  in  God's  government 
of  the  world,  its  creation  must  have  been  predesigned 
by  God  before  he  called  the  world  into  existence.  In 
this  sense  the  Torah  is  classed  with  other  creations  of 
God  which  are  endowed  with  pre-mundane  existence, 
as  Israel,  the  throne  of  God  (kingdom?),  the  name 
of  the  Messiah,  hell  and  paradise  (or  reward  and 
punishment),  and  repentance.^  With  regard  to  re- 
pentance, the  Chapters  of  Rabbi  Eliezer  teach.  When 
God  designed  the  world  he  found  no  firm  basis  for 
it  until  he  created  the  quality  of  repentance.^  The 
same  thought  of  the  impossibility  of  a  world  with- 
out a  revelation  may  perhaps  also  have  been  present 

1  See  irnntt  tr^n^S  to  Gen.  R.,  I. 

2  See  Gen.  R.,  i  4,  and  all  the  parallels  given  there,  which  are  very 
varying.  s  ggg  F,  R.  E.,  3.     See  also  below,  p.  314. 


LAW  AS  PERSONIFIED   IN  LITERATURE        129 

to  the  mind  of  the  Jew  when  he   spoke  of  the  pre- 
mundane  existence  of  the  Torah. 

Plausible,  however,  as  this  explanation  may  be,  it 
is  a  little  too  rationalistic  and  would  hardly  account  for 
that  exaltation  of  the  Torah  which  is  such  a  prominent 
feature  in  Jewish  literature.  As  soon  as  the  Torah 
was  identified  with  the  Wisdom  of  Proverbs,  the  mind 
did  not  rest  satisfied  with  looking  upon  it  as  a  mere 
condition  for  the  existence  of  the  world.  Every 
connotation  of  the  term  Wisdom  in  the  famous 
eighth  chapter  of  Proverbs  was  invested  with  life 
and  individuality.  The  Torah,  by  this  same  process, 
was  personified  and  endowed  with  a  mystical  life  of  its 
own,  which  emanates  from  God,  yet  is  partly  detached 
from  him.  Thus  we  find  the  Torah  pleading  for  or 
against  Israel,  as  on  the  occasion  of  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple,  when  the  Torah  was  called  to  give  evidence 
against  Israel,  but  desisted  from  it  at  the  instance  of 
Abraham,  who  said  unto  her,  "My  daughter,  were  not 
my  children  the  only  ones  who  received  thee,  when  thou 
wast  rejected  by  other  nations?"  ^  Nay,  even  single 
letters  of  the  alphabet  are  endowed  with  a  separate 
life,  enabling  them  to  act  the  same  part  almost  as  the 
Torah.^  The  whole  later  mystical  theory  which  de- 
generates into  the  combinations  of  letters  to  which  the 
most  important  meaning  is  attached,  takes  its  origin 
from  these  personifications. 

1  See  Lament.  R.,  Introduction,  I.     See  also  Lev.  R.,  19  and  parallels. 

2  See  Gen.  R.,  i.     Cf.  F.  R.,  109  a. 

K 


130     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

This  notion  of  the  personification  of  the  Torah  never 
hardened  into  an  article  of  faith.  Its  influence  is  less 
felt  in  dogma  than  in  literature,  particularly  in  the 
legends  and  scriptural  interpretations  bearing  on  the 
subject  of  the  revelation  on  Mount  Sinai.  We  must, 
at  least,  consider  them  in  their  main  features. 
<^  First,  the  day  of  revelation  is  considered  as  the  day 
on  which  earth  was  wedded  to  heaven.  The  barrier 
between  them  was  removed  by  the  fact  that  the  Torah, 
the  heavenly  bride,  the  daughter  of  the  Holy  One,  was 
wedded  to  Israel  on  that  day.^  The  simile  is  carried 
further,  and  even  the  feature  of  the  capture  of  the 
bride  is  not  missing,  —  the  verse  in  Ps.  68  19,  "Thou 
hast  ascended  on  high,  thou  hast  led  captivity  captive," 
being  interpreted  as  referring  to  Moses,  who  ascended 
to  heaven  and  captured  the  Torah,  in  spite  of  the 
resistance  of  the  angels,  who  were  most  reluctant  to 
allow  the  Torah,  the  desirable  treasure,  to  be  taken 
away  from  among  them.^  Our  planet  is  in  constant 
fear  lest  Israel  should  imitate  the  example  of  their 
heathen  neighbours,  which  would  signify  its  doom 
to  destruction.  Hence  the  attention  of  the  whole  uni- 
verse is  directed  to  this  glorious  act.  When  God  gave 
the  Torah  we  read  that  the  creatures  of  the  firmament 
paused  in  their  flight,  those  of  the  earth  ventured 
not  to  lift  up  their  voices,  the  waves  of  the  boisterous 

1  See  P.  K.,  104  b,  and  Exod.  P.,  30  5,  33  7. 

2  See  Shabbath,  89  b;   P.  P.,  98  «,  and  <5;   and  Exod.  P.,  281  and 
parallels. 


LAW  AS  PERSONIFIED   IN  LITERATURE        131 

seas  ceased  to  roll,  and  the  angels  interrupted  their 
eternal  song  of  "Holy,  Holy,  Holy,"  ^  —  heaven  and 
earth  listening  to  the  good  message. 

This  listening  of  the  universe  suggests  the  uni- 
versalistic  feature  of  the  Sinaitic  revelation.  Though 
magnifying  Israel  for  their  readiness  to  receive  the 
Torah,  and  strongly  blaming  the  gentiles  who  refused 
to  subject  themselves  to  the  word  of  God,  so  that  a 
certain  animosity  comes  down  from  Mount  Sinai  against 
the  worshipper  of  idols,^  these  legends  still  betray  a 
imiversalistic  tendency  as  to  the  real  and  original 
purpose  of  the  revelation.  Thus  with  reference  to 
Isa.  45  19,  God  is  supposed  to  have  said:  "I  have 
not  spoken  (the  word  of  the  revelation)  in  secret.  I 
did  not  reveal  it  in  hidden  places  and  in  dark  comers 
of  the  earth."  Nor  did  God  postpone  the  giving  of 
the  Torah  till  Israel  should  enter  into  the  Holy  Land, 
lest  Israel  might  claim  it  for  themselves  and  say  that 
the  nations  of  the  world  have  no  share  in  it  (in  other 
words,  it  was  not  God's  intention  to  make  it  a  national 
religion).  He  gave  it  in  open  places,  in  the  free  desert, 
so  that  every  man  feeling  the  desire  might  receive  it. 
Nor  did  he  say  first  to  the  children  of  Jacob,  "  Seek  ye 
me."^     For,  as  we  read  in  other  places,  the  Holy 

1  £xod.  R.y  29  9.  2  Shabbath,  89  a. 

3  See  Mechilta,  62  a,  66  3,  the  whole  passage  beginning  *lS'1tti  IDPfl. 
The  text  is  not  quite  correct,  but  the  drift  of  the  thought  is  as  we  have 
it  here.  See  Notes  to  the  passage,  and  cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  2  164,  note 
I  ;  and  Aruch,  ed.  Kohut,  s.v.  DJ3B.  See  also  Yalkui  Machiri 
on    ha.,    p.  156,   read    DIJIS    instead  of    DJSS.      The    MHG.   reads 

mats  rros  jnia  ^nn:  k^jk  ^p^msn  n^n^tt^i?  )h  ^aitt^pa  inn. 


132     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

one,  blessed  be  he,  came  first  to  the  sons  of  Esau  and 
offered  to  them  the  Torah.  These  asked,  ''What  is 
written  in  it?"  God  answered,  "Thou  shalt  not  kill." 
"We  cannot  accept  it,"  they  rejoined,  "killing  being 
our  profession."  Other  nations  objected  to  it  on 
account  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  commandments, 
immorality  and  the  appropriation  of  other  men's  pos- 
sessions being  the  purposes  of  their  lives,  and  the 
motive-springs  of  their  actions,  and  so  they  said,  "For 
the  knowledge  of  thy  ways,  we  have  no  desire  —  give 
thy  Torah  to  thy  people."  ^ 

It  is  rather  characteristic  of  these  legends,  which 
probably  reflect  the  attitude  of  the  Rabbis  towards  the 
missionary  enterprises  of  their  time,  that  it  is  chiefly 
the  moral  part  of  the  decalogue  to  which  the  nations 
objected.  Esau  is  broad  enough  for  general  prin- 
ciples and  will  admit  the  Jewish  God  into  his  pantheon, 
if  he  submit  to  the  process  of  accommodation  and 
evolution  so  that  he  can  share  his  honours  with  other 
gods.  Esau  objected  to  the  "Do  nots."  These  were 
too  definite  to  allow  of  a  wide  interpretation  in  which 
the  wisdom  of  Edom  excelled,  and  might  thus  interfere 
with  Esau's  calling,  his  gladiators,  his  legions,  and  the 
policy  of  his  procurators. 

Thus  Mount  Sinai  becomes  the  place  in  which  God 
reveals  himself  to  the  world,  and  Israel  undertakes  the 
terrible  responsibility  of  bearing  witness  to  this  fact. 

1  See  Mechilta,  ibid. ;  Sifre,  142  3 ;  Lament  /?.,  31;  F.  R.  E.,  ch. 
41 ;   P.  P.,  99  d  and  parallels. 


LAW  AS  PERSONIFIED  IN  LITERATURE       133 

"  If  you  will  not  make  known  my  divinity  (divine  nature) 
to  the  nations  of  the  world,  even  at  the  cost  of  your  lives, 
you  shall  suffer  for  this  iniquity,"  said  God.^  Though, 
indeed,  the  whole  of  creation  has  the  duty  to  join  in 
his  praise  and  to  bear  witness  to  his  divinity  (divine 
power),  Israel  is  especially  commanded  to  invite  all 
mankind  to  serve  God  and  to  beheve  in  him,  even  as 
Abraham  did,  who  made  God  beloved  by  all  the  crea- 
tures. And  so  intensely  should  we  love  him  that  we 
should  also  make  others  love  him.  For  those  who 
make  God  beloved  by  mankind  are  much  greater  than 
the  mere  lovers.^  By  this  acceptance  of  the  Torah, 
Israel  made  peace  between  God  and  his  world,^  the 
ultimate  end  being  that  its  influence  will  reach  the 
heathen  too,  and  all  the  gentiles  will  one  day  be  con- 
verted to  the  worship  of  God;^  for  the  Torah  "is  not 
the  Torah  of  the  Priests,  nor  the  Torah  of  the  Levites, 
nor  the  Torah  of  the  Israelites,  but  the  Torah  of  Man 
(Torath  ha- Adam),  whose  gates  are  open  to  receive 
the  righteous  nation  which  keepeth  the  truth  and  those 
who  are  good  and  upright  in  their  hearts."  ^ 

Another  important  feature  in  these  legends  and 
interpretations  is  the  fact  that  the  revelation  was  an 
act  of  grace  and  the  effluence  of  God's  goodness. 
When  the  princes  of  the  world  heard  the  thunders 

1  See  Lev.  R.,  6  5,  and  commentaries.     Cf.  also  M.  T.,  19  1. 

2  See  Maimonides,  3,  K,  U'tt,  IS'-TD.  Cf.  M.  T.,  19 1,  and  Midrash 
Tannaim,  ed.  Hoffmann,  p.  40.     See  also  M.  T.,  18  7. 

3  Gen.  E.,  662.  *  See  Berachoih,  54  b.  &  T.  K.,  86  b. 


134     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

and  lightnings  which  accompanied  the  revelation,  they 
were  frightened,  thinking  the  world  was  to  pass  through 
another  judgement  as  it  did  in  the  days  of  the  deluge, 
whereupon  they  consulted  their  prophet  Balaam.  He 
calmed  their  fears,  saying:  "Fear  not,  ye  kings,  he 
who  dwells  in  heaven  has  revealed  himself  to  his  chil- 
dren in  his  glory  and  his  mercy.  He  has  appeared,  to 
give  to  his  beloved  people  Torah,  wisdom,  and  instruc- 
tion,^ and  to  bless  them  with  strength  and  peace."  ^  In 
another  passage  it  is  stated  that  God  appeared  on  this 
occasion  in  the  aspect  of  an  instructing  Elder,  full  of 
mercy.^  Like  rain  and  light,  the  Torah  was  a  gift 
from  heaven  of  which  the  world  is  hardly  worthy, 
but  which  is  indispensable  to  its  maintenance.^ 

The  gift  was  a  complete  one,  without  any  reserve 
whatever.  Nothing  of  the  Torah,  God  assures  Israel, 
was  kept  back  in  heaven.^  All  that  follows  is  only  a 
matter  of  interpretation.  The  principle  held  by  the 
Rabbis  was  that  the  words  of  the  Torah  "are  fruitful 
and  multiply."  ®  Thus  the  conviction  could  ripen  that 
everything  wise  and  good,  be  it  ethical  or  ceremonial 
in  its  character,  the  effect  of  which  would  be  to 
strengthen  the  cause  of  religion,  was  at  least  poten- 
tially contained  in  the  Torah.  Hence  the  famous 
adage,  that  everything  which  any  student  will  teach  at 
any  future  time,  was  already  communicated  to  Moses 
on  Mount  Sinai,  as  also  the  injunction  that  any  accept- 

1  See  P.  P.,  95  a.        2  See  Si/re,  1^2  b.        ^  See  Mec?dlta,  66  b. 
*  Gen.  P.,  64.  ^  x)^^^/.  ^.,  g  6.  ^  See  Chagigah,  3  b. 


LAW  AS  PERSONIFIED   IN  LITERATURE  135 

able  truth,  though  discovered  by  an  insignificant  man 
in  Israel,  should  be  considered  of  as  high  authority  as 
if  it  had  emanated  from  a  great  sage  or  prophet  or  even 
from  Moses  himself/  It  requires  but  an  earnest 
religious  mind  to  discover  all  truth  there.  For  the 
Torah  came  down  from  heaven  with  all  the  necessary 
instruments:  humility,  righteousness,  and  upright- 
ness —  and  even  her  reward  was  in  her.^  And  man 
has  only  to  apply  these  tools  to  find  in  the  Torah 
peace,  strength,  life,  light,  bliss,  happiness,  joy,  and 
freedom.^ 

The  Torah  was,  in  short,  all  things  to  all  men.  To 
the  Theosophist,  who  had  already  come  under  the  sway 
of  Hellenistic  influences,  it  was  the  very  expression 
of  God's  wisdom,  which  he  would,  as  far  as  it  is  con- 
sistent with  Biblical  notions,  elevate  into  an  emana- 
tion of  God's  essence,  and  endow  with  a  pre-mundane 
existence,  reaching  almost  to  infinity.  To  the  mystical 
poet,  with  his  love  for  the  picturesque,  it  was  the 
heavenly  bride  adorned  with  all  the  virtues  which  only 
heaven  could  bestow  on  her,  at  whose  presentation  to 
Israel  the  whole  universe  rejoiced,  for  her  touch  with 
mankind  meant  the  wedding  of  heaven  to  earth. 
What,  then,  could  the  poor  mortal  do  better  than  to 
learn  to  know  her  and  to  fall  in  love  with  her  ? 

To  the  great  majority  of  the  Rabbis  who  retained 

1  See  St/re,  79  3.  2  ^^^^^^  j^^^  ij^i^^ 

3  See  P.  K.,  105  b  ;  Mechilta,  36  b,  47  ;  Sifre  a,  82  ^,  83  <^ ;  Exod. 
R„  36  3. 


136     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

their  sober  sense,  and  cared  more  about  what  God 
requires  us  to  be  than  about  knowing  what  he  is,  the 
Torah  was  simply  the  manifestation  of  God's  will, 
revealed  to  us  for  our  good;  the  pedagogue,  as  the 
Rabbis  expressed  it,^  who  educates  God's  creatures. 
The  occupation  with  the  Torah  was,  according  to  the 
Rabbis,  less  calculated  to  produce  schoolmen  and 
jurists  than  saints  and  devout  spirits.  ''Whosoever 
labours  in  the  Torah  for  its  own  sake,  merits  many 
things  ...  he  is  called  friend,  beloved,  a  lover  of 
God,  a  lover  of  mankind;  it  clothes  him  in  meekness 
and  fear  (of  God),  and  fits  him  to  become  righteous, 
pious,  and  upright;  it  keeps  him  far  from  sin,  brings 
him  towards  the  side  of  virtue,  and  gives  him  sover- 
eignty and  dominion  and  discerning  judgement.  To 
him  the  secrets  of  the  Torah  are  revealed ;  he  becomes 
a  never  failing  fountain,  he  grows  modest  and  long- 
suffering,  forgives  insults,  and  is  exalted  above  all 
things."  ^  On  the  other  hand,  his  individualism 
does  not  make  him  exclusive,  his  freedom  does  not 
involve  the  subjection  of  others,  the  world  rejoices  in 
him,  for  he  enriches  it  with  sound  knowledge,  under- 
standing, and  strength.^  His  life  is  one  even  Hke  that 
of  Moses,  a  continuous  mourning  for  the  glory  of  God 
and  the  glory  of  Israel  (at  present  obscured)  and  a  con- 

1  See  Gen.  7?.,  i.  Cf.  'Xsbtm^  llXsbn  dl?  miSK,  etc.,  by  R.  D^^H  HD 
p'napD,  to  Kinyan  Torah,  3  <5,  4  «,  the  passage  given  there  from  the 
Mechilta  of  Ishmael,  but  not  to  be  found  there. 

2  See  Kinyan  Torah  and  Friedmann,  DTlSDi,  p.  15  seq. 
^  Kinyan  Torah,  ibid. 


LAW  AS  PERSONIFIED   IN  LITERATURE        137 

stant  longing  for  their  salvation/  whilst  his  activity  (a 
continuation  of  the  revelation)  is  making  peace  between 
heaven  and  earth. ^  In  sooth,  Israel  has  recognised  the 
strength  (or  the  secret)  of  the  Torah ;  therefore,  they 
said,  ''We  forsake  not  God  and  his  Torah,  as  it  is  said : 
'I  sat  down  under  his  shadow  with  great  delight,  and 
his  fruit  was  sweet  to  my  taste ' "  (Song  of  Songs  23).  ^ 

In  fine,  to  the  Jew  the  Torah  was  anything  but  a 
curse.  He  understood  how  to  find  out  the  sweetness 
and  the  light  of  it  and  of  the  Law  which  formed  a 
part  of  it. 

1  See  S.  £.,  pp.  17  and  63.  ^  See  Sanhedrin,  99  b. 

^  Sqq  £xod.  J^.,  172. 


X 


THE   TORAH   IN   ITS   ASPECT   OF   LAW 
(MIZWOTH) 

R.  SiMLAi,  a  well-known  Agadic  teacher  and  con- 
troversialist of  the  third  century,  said  as  follows: 
"Six  hundred  and  thirteen  commandments  were 
delivered  unto  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai;  three  hundred 
and  sixty-five  of  which  are  prohibitive  laws,  corre- 
sponding to  the  number  of  days  of  the  solar  year, 
whilst  the  remaining  two  hundred  and  forty-eight  are 
affirmative  injunctions,  being  as  numerous  as  the 
limbs  constituting  the  human  body."  ^  This  is  one  of 
the  earlier  comments  on  the  number  of  the  six  hundred 
and  thirteen  laws,  which  are  brought  forward  in  many 
of  our  theological  works,  with  the  purpose  of  proving 
imder  what  burden  the  scrupulous  Jew  must  have  la- 
boured, who  considered  himself  under  the  duty  of 
performing  all  these  enactments.  The  number  is,  by 
its  very  strangeness,  bewildering;  and  the  Pharisee, 
unable  to  rise  to  the  heights  above  the  Law,  lay  under 

1  Makkoth,  23  b  and  parallels,  in  the  D^ri?  nS^  (where  n"^B  K'niS 
ought  to  be  corrected  into  X"^).  Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Am.,  I  558,  and 
notes.  The  earliest  known  source  for  this  number  is  probably  Mechilta 
67  a.  Cf.  also  Sifre,  90  b.  See  also  Bloch,  Revue  des  &tudes  JuiveSy 
I  197  seq.f  and  209  seq. 

138 


TORAH  IN   ITS  ASPECT  OF  LAW  (MIZWOTH)      139 

the  curse  of  its  mere  quantity.  A  few  words  as  to  the 
real  value  of  these  statistics  are  therefore  necessary, 
before  we  pass  to  other  questions  connected  with  our 
subject. 

The  words  with  which  the  saying  of  R.  Simlai  is  intro- 
duced are/ "He  preached,"  or  "he  interpreted,"  and 
they  somewhat  suggest  that  these  numbers  were  in  some 
way  a  subject  for  edification,  deriving  from  them  some 
moral  lesson.  The  lesson  these  numbers  were  intended 
to  convey  was,  first,  that  each  day  brings  its  new  tempta- 
tion only  to  be  resisted  by  a  firm  Do  not ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  whole  man  stands  in  the  service  of 
God,  each  limb  or  member  of  his  body  being  entrusted 
with  the  execution  of  its  respective  functions.^  This  was 
probably  the  sentiment  which  the  preacher  wished  to 
impress  upon  his  congregation,  without  troubling 
himself  much  about  the  accuracy  of  his  numbers. 
How  little,  indeed,  we  are  justified  in  urging  these 
numbers  too  seriously  is  clear  from  the  sequel  of 
■  R.  Simlai's  homily.  It  runs  thus :  "  David  came  (after 
Moses)    and   reduced  ^   them    (the   six   hundred    and 

1  •'Xbia^  n  r-n  in  most  of  the  parallels. 

2  Cf.  F.  K.y  loi  a,  and  Rashi  to  Makkoth,  ibid.  Cf.  also  Tan., 
Kin,  2.  There  are,  however,  grave  doubts  whether  the  subdivision  in 
365  and  248  (the  words  in  the  Talmud  from  T\"'a<S  to  DlX)  is  not  a 
later  addition.     Cf.  Bacher,  ibid. 

3  The  word  in  the  Talmud  and  in  Tan.,  0*1221^  end  is  fTttO."!"!, 
which  may  mean  "compressed"  or  "reduced."  See  Bacher,  ibid. 
I  take  here  the  version  of  the  Talmud,  omitting  the  additional  dis- 
cussions.    Cf.  also  M.  T.,  15,  end. 


I40     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

thirteen  commandments)  to  eleven,  as  it  is  said :  Lord, 
who  shall  abide  in  thy  tabernacle?  who  shall  dwell 
in  thy  holy  hill?  He  that  walketh  uprightly,  etc/ 
Then  Isaiah  came  and  reduced  them  to  six,  as  it  is 
said :  He  that  walketh  righteously,  etc.^  Then  Micah 
came  and  reduced  them  to  three:  He  hath  shewed 
thee,  O  man,  what  is  good;  and  what  doth  the  Lord 
require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly,  etc.^  Then  Isaiah 
came  again,  and  reduced  them  to  two,  as  it  is  said: 
Thus  saith  the  Lord,  Keep  my  judgements,  and  do 
justice.^  Then  Amos  came  and  reduced  them  to  one, 
as  it  is  said :  Seek  the  Lord  and  live.^  Whilst  Habak- 
kuk  (also)  reduced  them  to  one,  as  it  is  said:  But  the 
just  shall  live  by  his  faith. ^ "  The  drift  of  this  whole 
passage  shows  that  the  homily  was  not  so  much  intended 
to  urge  the  necessity  of  carrying  out  all  the  command- 
ments with  their  numerous  details,  as  to  emphasise 
the  importance  of  the  moral  laws,  which  themselves, 
nevertheless,  may  be  compressed  into  the  principle  of 
seeking  God,  or  of  faith  in  God. 

Granted,  however,  that  R.  Simlai  took  it  seriously 
with  his  number  of  six  hundred  and  thirteen :  granted, 

1  Ps.  15  2-5,  which  verses  contain   eleven    moral  injunctions.     Cf. 
Kimchi's  commentary  to  this  chapter. 

2  Isa.  T,T,  15,  which  verse  contains  six  moral  injunctions. 

3  Micah  6  8,  where  three  moral  injunctions  are  contained. 

4  Isa.  56  1. 

5  Amos  5  6.     This  was  probably  the  original  version  of   R.  Simlai's 
words,  notwithstanding  the  objections  made  there. 

6  Hab.  2  4. 


TORAH  IN   ITS  ASPECT  OF  LAW  (MIZWOTH)      141 

again,  that  his  enumeration  rested  on  some  old  authority 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  guarantee  for  its  exactness/ 
this  would  prove  nothing  for  the  "burden  theory." 
The  only  possible  explanations  of  our  Rabbi's  saying  are 
the  lists  of  R.  Simon  Kiara  and  of  Maimonides.^  But 
even  a  superficial  analysis  will  discover  that  in  the  times 
of  the  Rabbis  many  of  these  commandments  were  already 
obsolete,  as,  for  instance,  those  relating  to  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  tabernacle,  and  to  the  conquest  of  Pales- 
tine; whilst  others  concerned  only  certain  classes,  as, 
for  instance,  the  priests,  the  judges,  the  soldiers  and  their 
commanders,  the  Nazirites,  the  representatives  of  the 
community,  or  even  one  or  two  individuals  in  the  whole 
population,  as,  for  example,  the  Idng  and  the  high  priest. 
Others,  again,  provided  for  contingencies  which  could 
occur  only  to  a  few,  as,  for  instance,  the  laws  concern- 
ing divorce  or  levirate-marriages.  The  laws,  again, 
relating  to  idolatry,  incest,  and  the  sacrifices  of  chil- 
dren to  Moloch,  could  hardly  be  considered  as  coming 
within  the  province  of  the  practical  life  even  of  the 
pre-Christian  Jew;  just  as  little  as  we  can  speak  of 
Englishmen  being  under  the  burden  of  the  law  when 
prohibited  from  burning  their  widows  or  marrying 
their  grandmothers,  though  these  acts  would  cer- 
tainly be  considered  as  crimes.  A  careful  examination 
of    the    six    hundred    and    thirteen    laws    will    prove 

1  This  seems  to  be  the  opinion  of  Maimonides. 

2  The  former  in  the  mbnJ  msbn,  the  latter  in  the  m^C^n  ^BD 
and  the  Introduction  to  the  H^in  HStrXS. 


142     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

that  barely  a  hundred  laws  are  to  be  found  which 
concerned  the  everyday  life  of  the  bulk  of  the  people.* 
■  Thus  the  law  in  its  totality,  which  by  the  number  of  its 
precepts  is  so  terrifying,  is  in  its  greater  part  nothing 
else  than  a  collection  of  statutes  relating  to  different 
sections  of  the  community  and  to  its  multifarious  insti- 
tutions, ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil,  which  constituted, 
as  I  have  already  said,  the  Idngdom  of  God. 

And  here  lay  the  strength  of  Judaism.  The  modern 
man  is  an  eclectic  being.  He  takes  his  religion  from 
the  Bible,  his  laws  from  the  Romans,  his  culture  from 
the  classics,  and  his  politics  from  his  party.  He  is  cer- 
tainly broader  in  his  sympathies  than  the  Jew  of  old ;  but 
as  a  composite  being,  he  must  necessarily  be  lacking  in 
harmony  and  unity.  His  sympathies  are  divided  be- 
tween the  different  sources  of  his  inspiration,  —  sources 
which  do  not,  as  we  know,  always  go  well  together.  In 
order  to  avoid  collision,  he  has  at  last  to  draw  the  line 
between  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  civil,  leaving  the 
former,  which  in  fact  was  forced  upon  him  by  a 
foreign  religious  conqueror,  to  a  separate  body  of  men 
whose  business  it  is  to  look  after  the  welfare  of  his 
invisible  soul,  whilst  reserving  the  charge  of  the  body 
and  the  world  to  himself. 

The  Rabbinic  notion  seems  to  have  been  that  "if 
religion  is  anything,  it  is  everything."  The  Rabbi 
gloried  in  the  thought  of  being,  as  the  Agadic  expression 
runs,  "a  member  of  a  city  (or  community)  which  in- 

1  See  Schechter,  Studies  in  Judaism,  p.  301. 


TORAH  IN   ITS  ASPECT   OF  LAW  (MIZWOTH)      143 

eluded  the  priest  as  well  as  the  prophet,  the  king  as 
well  as  the  scribe  and  the  teacher,"  all  appointed  and 
established  by  God.^  To  consider  the  administration 
of  justice  with  all  its  details  as  something  lying  without 
the  sphere  of  Torah  would  have  been  a  terrible  thought 
to  the  ancient  Jew.  Some  Rabbis  are  anxious  to 
show  that  the  appointment  of  judges  was  commanded 
to  Moses,  even  before  Jethro  gave  him  the  well-known 
advice.^  The  Torah,  they  point  out,  is  a  combination 
of  mercy  and  justice.^  That  the  ways  of  the  Torah 
"are  ways  of  sweetness,  and  all  her  paths  are  peace" 
(Prov.  3  17.  18),  was  a  generally  accepted  axiom,^ 
and  went  without  saying ;  what  had  to  be  particularly 
urged  was  that  even  such  laws  and  institutions  as  appear 
to  be  a  consequence  of  uncompromising  right  and  of  rigid 
truth,  rather  than  of  sweetness  and  peace,  were  also 
part  and  parcel  of  the  Torah,  with  her  God-like  uni- 
versality of  attributes.  Hence  the  assertion  of  the 
Rabbis  that  God  threatens  Israel  with  taking  back  his 
treasure  from  them  should  they  be  slow  in  carrying 
out  the  principle  of  justice  (dinim).^  "To  the  nations 
of  the  earth  he  gave  some  few  laws;  but  his  love  to 
Israel  was  particularly  manifested  by  the  fulness  and 

1  Si/re,  134  a.     Cf.  Chullin,  ^6  d.     The  passage  in  the  text  follows 
more  the  reading  in  the  AfUG.,  VinD  '  H^n  xblDl  X3-13  'D1K  l^'H 

maiD  ^^^nf2  roan  iDinia  rx^ns  laino  VD^a  laino  r^-h  laina 

13ina  VWf2^  13inJ2,  etc.  2  See  Si/re,  20  a. 

3  Deu^.  R.,  5  7. 

*  See,  for  instance,  Sukkah,  32  a  \  Jebamoth,  87  by  and  elsewhere, 
s  Exod.  R.,  30  23. 


144     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

completeness  of  the  Torah,  which  is  wholly  theirs."  * 
And  in  it  they  find  everything.  "If  thou  wantest 
advice,"  the  Rabbis  say  (even  in  matters  secular,  or 
in  questions  regarding  behaviour  and  good  manners), 
"take  it  from  the  Torah,  even  as  David  said,  From  thy 
precepts  I  get  understanding"  (Ps.  119  104).^ 

As  a  fact,  the  old  Rabbis  hardly  recognised  such  a 
chasm  between  the  material  and  the  spiritual  as  to  jus- 
tify the  domain  of  religion  being  confined  to  the  latter. 
The  old  Rabbinic  literature  is  even  devoid  of  the  words 
spiritual  and  material.  The  corresponding  terms,  ^T\T\ 
and  ^^tr:3,  were  coined  by  later  translators  from  the 
Greek  and  Arabic  philosophers,  with  whom  the  divi- 
sion between  body  and  soul  is  so  prominent.  It  is  true 
that  the  Rabbis  occasionally  used  such  expressions  as 
"things  of  the  heaven"  and  "things  of  the  world,"  or 
matters  concerning  "the  eternal  life"  and  matters  con- 
cerning "the  temporal  life."  ^  But  apart  from  the 
fact  that  they  were  little  meant  to  indicate  a  theologi- 
cal division  between  two  antagonistic  principles,  the 
"things  of  the  heaven"  covered  a  much  wider  area  of 
human  life  than  is  commonly  imagined.  Thus  we 
hear  of  a  Rabbi  who  remonstrated  with  his  son  for  not 
attending  the  lecture  of  his  friend  R.  Chisda.     The  son 

1  Exod.  R.,  ibid.,  g  and  parallels.  2  See  P.  K.,  105  a. 

3  «)sbl7"!  4'tt  —  ^'^tr^T  'h't^.  See  e.g.  Berachoth,  7  b,  v.  Shabbath, 
33  b.  Interesting  is  the  arrangement  in  the  complete  edition  of  the 
D''KT  "ISD  in  which  all  the  laws  concerning  conduct  and  morality  are 
grouped  under  the  heading  of  the  duties  towards  God  and  man,  whilst 
the  ceremonial  come  under  the  heading  of  duties  towards  God  alone. 


TORAH  IN  ITS  ASPECT  OF  LAW   {MIZWOTH)      145 

apologised,  and  answered  that  he  had  once  gone  to  the 
school  of  R.  Chisda,  but  what  he  heard  were  "things 
of  the  world,"  the  lecture  having  consisted  in  the  expo- 
sition of  a  set  of  sanitary  rules  to  be  observed  on  cer- 
tain occasions.  Whereupon  the  father  rejoined  indig- 
nantly: ''He  (R.  Chisda)  is  occupied  with  the  life  of 
God's  creatures,  and  dost  thou  venture  to  call  such 
matters  'things  of  the  world'?"  ^  Elsewhere  we  find 
the  Rabbis  deciding  that  to  teach  a  child  a  trade  or  a 
handicraft  is  to  be  considered  as  one  of  the  "delights 
of  heaven,"  for  which  arrangements  may  be  made  even 
on  the  Sabbath.^ 

As  a  rule,  the  Rabbis  spoke  of  sin  and  righteousness, 
a  good  action  or  a  bad  action,  miC^  or  HH^'DV,  for 
each  of  which  body  and  soul  are  alike  held  responsible. 
But  no  act  is  in  itself  the  worse  or  the  better  for  being 
a  function  of  the  body  or  a  manifestation  of  the  soul. 
When  Hillel  the  Great,  who,  as  it  would  seem,  was  the 
author,  or  at  least  the  inspirer,  of  the  saying,  "  Let  all 
thy  deeds  be  for  the  sake  of  Heaven,"  was  about  to 
take  a  bath,  he  said,  "  I  am  going  to  perform  a  religious 
act  by  beautifying  my  person,  that  was  created  in  the 
image  of  God."  ^ 

R.  Judah  Hallevi,  with  the  instinct  of  a  poet,  hit  the 

1  Shabbath,  S2  a.  2  q^^^j;  ^nTBH.     Shabbath,  \tpa. 

3  See  A,  R.  N.,  33  b ;  Lev.  R.,  34  3;  and  P.  R.,  115  b.  "  The  fourth 
degree  of  love,"  says  St.  Bernard  somewhere,  "is  to  love  self  only  for 
God's  sake."  See  also  the  passage  from  the  Yelamdenu  reproduced  in 
Jellinek's  Beth  Hamtnidrash,  6:  85  where  it  is  the  ''li  (or  superior 
beauty)  in  which  the  bXH  X:hl  finds  expression. 

L 


146     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

right  strain  when  he  said,  in  his  famous  Dialogue 
Kusari,  ''Know  that  our  Torah  is  constituted  of  the 
three  psychological  states:  Fear,  love,  and  joy"  (that 
is  to  say,  all  the  principal  emotions  of  man  are  enlisted 
in  the  service  of  God).  "By  each  of  these  thou  mayest 
be  brought  into  communion  with  thy  God.  Thy  con- 
triteness  in  the  days  of  fasting  does  not  bring  thee  nearer 
to  God  than  thy  joy  on  the  Sabbath  days  and  on  festi- 
vals, provided  thy  joy  emanates  from  a  devotional  and 
perfect  heart.  And  just  as  prayer  requires  devotion 
and  thought,  so  does  joy,  namely,  that  thou  wilt  rejoice 
in  his  commandments  for  their  own  sake,  (the  only 
reasons  for  this  rejoicing  being)  the  love  of  him  who 
commanded  it,  and  the  desire  of  recognising  God's 
goodness  towards  thee.  Consider  these  feasts  as  if  thou 
wert  the  guest  of  God  invited  to  his  table  and  his  bounty, 
and  thank  him  for  it  inwardly  and  outwardly.  And  if 
thy  joy  in  God  excites  thee  even  to  the  degree  of  singing 
and  dancing,  it  is  a  service  to  God,  keeping  thee  attached 
to  him.  But  the  Torah  did  not  leave  these  things  to 
our  arbitrary  will,  but  put  them  all  under  control.  For 
man  lacks  the  power  to  make  use  of  the  functions  of 
body  and  soul  in  their  proper  proportions."  ^ 

The  law  thus  conceived  as  submitting  all  the  faculties 
and  passions  of  man  to  the  control  of  the  divine,  whilst 
suppressing  none,  was  a  source  of  joy  and  blessing  to 
the  Rabbis.  Whatever  meaning  the  words  of  the  Apostle 
may  have,  when  he  speaks  of  the  curse  of  the  Law,  it  is 

1  Kuzari  (ed.  Sluzki,  p.  45). 


TORAH  IN  ITS  ASPECT  OF  LAW  {MIZWOTH)      147 

certain  that  those  who  lived  and  died  for  it  considered 
it  as  a  blessing.     To  them  it  was  an  effluence  of  God's 
mercy  and  love.     In  the  daily  prayer  of  the  Jews  the 
same  sentiment  is  expressed  in  most  glowing  words: 
*'With  everlasting  love  thou  hast  loved  the  house  of 
Israel,  thy  people;    Torah,  commandments,   statutes, 
and  judgements  hast  thou  taught  us.  .  .  .     Yea,  we 
will  rejoice  in  the  words  of  thy  Torah  and  thy  com- 
mandments forever.  .  .  .    And  mayest  thou  never  take 
away  thy  love  from  us.     Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  who 
lovest  thy  people  Israel."  ^     Beloved  are  Israel,  whom 
the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  surrounded  with  com- 
mandments,  (bidding  them)  to  have  phylacteries  on 
their  heads  and  arms,  a  mezuzah  on  their  door-posts, 
fringes  on  the  four  corners  of  their  garments.  .  .  . 
"  Be  distinguished,"  said  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he,  to  Israel,  "  by  the  commandments  in  order  that 
ye  may  be  pleasing  unto  me.     Thou  (Israel)  art  beau- 
tiful when  thou  art  pleasing."^     Indeed,  there  is  not 
a  single  thing  which  is  not  connected  with  a  command- 
ment, be  it  the  farm,  or  the  home,  or  the  garments  of 
the  man,  or  his  flocks.^    And  it  is  on  account  of  this 
fact  that  Israel  considered  themselves  blessed  in  the 
city  and  in  the  field. ^     It  is  the  very  light  sown  for  the 
righteous,  God  not  having  loved  anything  in  the  world 
which  is  not  connected  with  a  law.^ 

1  See  Singer,  p.  69  ;  Baer,  p.  164.    Cf.  also  Berachoth,  33  d ;  Singer, 
p.  227;   and  Baer,  p.  347.  ^  Si/re,  75  d  and  parallels. 

3  T.  K,y  42  a.     *  Tan.  KSn,  4.     ^  x^urn.  -/?.,  17  5  ;   cf.  Lev,  R.y  6  3. 


XI 

THE   JOY   OF   THE   LAW 

Law  and  commandments,  or  as  the  Rabbinic  expres- 
sion is,  Torah  and  Mizwoth,  have  a  harsh  sound  and 
are  suggestive  to  the  outsider  of  something  external, 
forced  upon  men  by  authority  from  the  outside,  sinister 
and  burdensome.  The  citations  just  given  show  that 
Israel  did  not  consider  them  in  that  light.  They  were 
their  very  love  and  their  very  life.  This  will  become 
clearer  when  we  consider  both  the  sentiment  accom- 
panying the  performance  of  the  Law  and  the  motives 
urging  them. 

The  miC^  h'^  nn^tr,  the  joy  experienced  by  the 
Rabbinic  Jew  in  being  commanded  to  fulfil  the  Law, 
and  the  enthusiasm  which  he  felt  at  accomplishing  that 
which  he  considered  to  be  the  will  of  God,  is  a  point 
hardly  touched  upon  by  most  theological  writers,  and 
if  touched  upon  at  all,  is  hardly  ever  understood. 
Yet  this  "joy  of  the  Law"  is  so  essential  an  element 
in  the  understanding  of  the  Law,  that  it  "forms  that 
originality  of  sentiment  more  or  less  delicate"  which 
can  never  be  conceived  by  those  who  have  experienced 
it  neither  from  life  nor  from  literature. 

148 


THE  JOY   OF    THE  LAW  149 

How  anxious  a  Jew  was  to  carry  out  a  law,  and  what 
joy  he  felt  in  fulfilling  it,  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
story,  which  perhaps  dates  from  the  very  time  when  the 
Law  was  denounced  as  slavery  and  as  the  strength  of 
sin.  According  to  Deut.  24  19,  a  sheaf  forgotten  in 
the  harvest  field  belonged  to  the  poor;  the  proprietor 
being  forbidden  to  go  again  and  to  fetch  it.  This 
prohibitive  law  was  called  T\tO^  DliCtt,  "the  com- 
mandment with  regard  to  forgetfulness."  It  was  im- 
possible to  fulfil  it  as  long  as  one  thought  of  it.  In 
connection  with  this  we  read  in  the  Tosephta:  "It 
happened  to  a  Chasid  (saint)  that  he  forgot  a  sheaf  in  his 
field,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  fulfil  the  commandment 
with  regard  to  forgetfulness.  Whereupon  he  bade  his 
son  go  to  the  temple,  and  offer  for  him  a  burnt-offering 
and  a  peace-offering,  whilst  he  also  gave  a  great  banquet 
to  his  friends  in  honour  of  the  event.  Thereupon  his 
son  said  to  him:  Father,  why  dost  thou  rejoice  in  this 
commandment  more  than  in  any  other  law  prescribed 
in  the  Torah  ?  He  answered,  that  it  was  the  occurrence 
of  the  rare  opportunity  of  accomplishing  the  will  of 
God,  even  as  the  result  of  some  oversight,  which  caused 
him  so  much  delight."  ^ 

This  joy  of  the  Mizwah  constituted  the  essence  of  the 
action.  Israel,  we  are  told,  receives  especial  praise  for 
the  fact  that  when  they  stood  on  Mount  Sinai  to  receive 
the  Torah,  they  all  combined  with  one  heart  to  accept 

1  Tosephta  Peak,  22.  Cf.  Midrash  Ztita  (ed.  Buber,  51  ^).  Of 
course,  we  must  read  there  .13133  K^tt^  for  .131173. 


I50     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

the  kingdom  of  heaven  in  joy.  The  sons  of  Aaron, 
again,  were  glad  and  rejoicing  when  they  heard  words 
(of  commandment)  from  the  mouth  of  Moses.  Again, 
''let  man  fulfil  the  commandments  of  the  Torah  with 
joy,"  exclaimed  a  Rabbi,  "and  then  they  will  be 
counted  to  him  as  righteousness."  ^  The  words, 
"Moses  did  as  the  Lord  commanded  him"  (Num. 
27  22),  are  explained  to  mean  that  he  fulfilled  the  Law 
with  joy.^  In  a  similar  manner  the  words,  "I  have 
done  according  to  all  that  thou  hast  commanded  me'* 
(Deut.  26  14),  are  interpreted  to  signify,  I  have  re- 
joiced and  caused  others  to  rejoice.^  Naturally,  it  is 
the  religionist  of  high  standard,  or  as  the  Rabbis  ex- 
press it,  "the  man  who  deserves  it,"  who  realises  this 
joy  in  the  discharge  of  all  religious  functions,  whilst 
to  him  "who  deserves  it  not"  it  may  become  a  trial 
of  purification.^  But  the  ideal  is  to  obtain  this  quality 
of  joy,  or  "to  deserve  it."  The  truly  righteous  rejoice 
almost  unconsciously,  joy  being  a  gift  from  heaven  to 
them,  as  it  is  said,  "Thou  (God)  hast  put  gladness  in 
my  heart."  ^ 

This  principle  of  joy  in  connection  with  the  Mizwah 
is  maintained  both  in  the  Talmud  and  in  the  devo- 
tional literature  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  general  rule 
is:   Tremble  with  joy  when  thou  art  about  to  fulfil  a 

1  See  Mechilta,  66  3  ;  T.  K.,  42  b.  See  also  S.  E.,  p.  29.  Cf.  also 
ibid.^  P-  95- 

2  Sifrcy  52  b.  3  /^2V.,  129  a. 
4  Yoma,  72  b,  inBm2£  TOl  ^h  inn^t^tt  HDT.              5  S.  E.,  p.  97. 


THE  JOY  OF  THE  LAW  151 

commandment.*  God,  his  Salvation,  and  his  Law, 
are  the  three  things  in  which  Israel  rejoices.^  Indeed, 
as  R.  Bachye  Ibn.  Bakudah  declares,  to  mention  one 
of  the  later  moraHsts,  it  is  this  joy  experienced  by  the 
sweetness  of  the  service  of  God  which  forms  a  part 
of  the  reward  of  the  religionist,  even  as  the  prophet 
said,  "  Thy  words  were  found,  and  I  did  eat  them;  and 
thy  word  was  unto  me  the  joy  and  rejoicing  of  mine 
heart"  (Jer.  15  le).^  R.  Bachye  Ibn  Chalwah,  again, 
declares  that  the  joy  accompanying  the  carrying  out  of 
a  religious  performance  is  even  more  acceptable  to  God 
than  the  Mizwah  itself.  The  righteous,  he  points  out, 
feel  this  ineffable  delight  in  performing  God's  will  in  the 
same  way  as  the  spheres  and  planets  (whose  various 
revolutions  are  a  perpetual  song  to  God)  rejoice  in  their 
going  forth  and  are  glad  in  their  returning;^  whilst 
R.  Joseph  Askari  of  Safed  (sixteenth  century)  makes 
joy  one  of  the  necessary  conditions  without  which 
a  law  cannot  be  perfectly  carried  out.^  And  I  may 
perhaps  remark  that  this  joy  of  the  Mizwah  was  a 
living  reality  even  in  modern  times.  I  myself  had 
once  the  good  fortune  to  observe  one  of  those  old 
type  Jews,  who,  as  the  first  morning  of  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  drew  near,  used  to  wake  and  rise  soon 
after  the   middle  of  the  night.     There  he  sat,  with 

1  D.  E.  2.,  2.  2  />.  j^^^  147  a,  194  a. 

4  niapn  nD,  ch.  nnx:tr. 

5  See  Dn"^,  Warsaw,  1879,  p.  9.     Cf.  also  Albo,  Ikkarim,  3  33;  also 

Luzzato,  nnu?''  nb^DD,  28  a. 


152     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

trembling  joy,  awaiting  impatiently  the  break  of  dawn, 
when  he  would  be  able  to  fulfil  the  law  of  the  palm 
branches  and  the  willows ! 

To  give  one  or  two  further  instances  how  many  more 
things  there  are  in  the  Synagogue  and  in  the  Law  than 
are  dreamt  of  by  our  divines,  I  shall  allude  to  the 
Sabbath  and  to  prayer. 

The  institution  of  the  Sabbath  is  one  of  those  laws 
jthe  strict  observance  of  which  was  already  the  object 
jof  attack  on  the  part  of  the  compilers  of  the  Synoptic 
Gospels.  Nevertheless,  the  doctrine  proclaimed  in  one 
of  the  Gospels  that  the  Son  of  man  is  the  Lord  of  the 
Sabbath,  was  also  current  among  the  Rabbis.  They 
too  teach  that  the  Sabbath  is  delivered  into  the  hand 
of  man  (to  break  it  when  necessary),  and  not  man  into 
the  power  of  the  Sabbath.*  And  the  Rabbis  even  laid 
down  the  axiom  that  a  scholar  living  in  a  town,  where 
there  could  be  among  the  Jewish  population  the  least 
doubt  as  to  the  question  whether  the  Sabbath  might 
be  broken  for  the  benefit  of  a  person  dangerously  sick, 
was  to  be  despised  as  a  man  neglecting  his  duty ;  every 
delay  in  such  a  case  being  fraught  with  grave  conse- 
quences to  the  patient ;  for,  as  Maimonides  points  out, 
the  laws  of  the  Torah  are  not  meant  as  an  infliction  upon 
mankind,  "but  as  mercy,  loving-kindness,  and  peace."  ^ 

The    attacks  upon  the  Sabbath  have  not  abated. 
"The  day  is  still  described  by   almost  every  modern 

1  Mechilta,  1 04  a. 

^Jer,  Voma,  45  i>.    Cf.  Maimonides,  ^'H  S"a  n^lT  ITi^Dbrt. 


THE  JOY  OF  THE  LAW  153 

writer  in  the  most  gloomy  colours,  and  long  lists  are 
given  of    the  minute  observances    connected  with  it, 
easily  to  be  transgressed,  which  would  necessarily  make 
the  Sabbath,  instead  of  a  day  of  rest,  a  day  of  sorrow 
and  anxiety,  almost  worse    than  the    Scotch  Sunday, 
as  depicted  by   continental    writers."       Even   Haus- 
rath*  —  who  is   something  more  than    a    theologian, 
for    he  also  wrote    history  — is     unable     to     see    in 
the  Rabbinic  Sabbath  more  than  a  day  which  is  to 
be  distinguished  by  a  mere  non-performance  of  the 
thirty-nine   various   sorts  of    work  forbidden   by  the 
Rabbis  on  Sabbaths,  such  as  sowing,  ploughing,  reap- 
ing, winnowing,  kneading,  spinning,  weaving,  skinning, 
tanning,  writing,  etc.,  etc., —a  whole  bundle  of  par- 
ticiples, in  the  expounding  of  which  the  Pharisee  took 
an    especial    delight.^    Contrast    this  view    with    the 
prayer  of  R.  Zadok,  a  younger  contemporary  of  the 
Aposdes,  which  runs   thus:   "Through  the  love  with 
which  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  lovest  thy  people  Israel, 
and  the  mercy  which  thou  hast  shown  to  the  children 
of  thy  covenant,  thou  hast  given  unto  us  in  love  this 
great  and  holy  seventh  day."  ^    This  Rabbi,  clearly, 
regarded  the  Sabbath  as  a  gift  from  heaven,  an  ex- 
pression of  the  infinite  love  and  mercy  of  God,  which 
he  manifested  tovv^ard  his  beloved  children.     Thus  the 
Sabbath  is  celebrated  by  the  very  people  who  observe 

^  See  Schechter,  Studies  in  Judaisfti,  p.  297  seq. 

2  History  of  the  Neiu  Testament  Times,  I  101. 

3  Tosephta  Berachoth,  3  7. 


154     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

it,  in  hundreds  of  hymjis,  which  would  fill  volumes, 
as  a  day  of  rest  and  joy,  of  pleasure  and  delight, 
a  day  in  which  man  enjoys  some  presentiment  of  the 
pure  bliss  and  happiness  which  are  stored  up  for  the 
righteous  in  the  world  to  come,  and  to  which  such  ten- 
der names  were  appHed  as  the  "  Queen  Sabbath,"  the 
"  Bride  Sabbath,"  and  the  "  holy,  dearly  beloved  Sab- 
bath." Every  founder  of  a  religion  declares  the  yoke 
which  he  is  about  to  put  on  his  followers  to  be  easy, 
and  the  burden  to  be  light ;  but,  after  all,  the  evidence 
of  those  who  did  bear  the  Sabbath  yoke  for  thousands 
of  years  ought  to  pass  for  something.  The  assertion 
of  some  writers  that  the  Rabbis,  the  framers  of  these 
laws,  as  students  leading  a  retired  life,  suffered  in  no 
way  under  them,  and  therefore  were  unable  to  realise 
their  oppressive  effect  upon  the  great  majority  of  the 
people,  is  hardly  worth  refuting.  The  Rabbis  belonged 
to  the  majority,  being  mostly  recruited,  as  already 
pointed  out  in  another  place,  from  the  artisan,  trading, 
and  labouring  classes.^  This  very  R.  Zadok,  whom  I 
have  just  mentioned,  says:  ''Make  not  the  Torah  a 
crown  wherewith  to  aggrandise  thyself,  nor  a  spade 
wherewith  to  dig;"  whilst  Hillel  considers  it  as  a  mortal 
sin  to  derive  any  material  profit  from  the  words  of  the 
Torah.2 

The  prayers  of  the  synagogue  are  another  case  in 
point.  That  Jews  could  pray,  that  they  had,  besides 
the  Temple,  a  synagogue  service,  independent  of  sacri- 

1  See  above,  p.  i  lo.  2  Aboth,  4  7. 


THE  JOY  OF  THE  LAW  155 

fices  and  priests,  does  not,  as  every  student  must  have 
felt,  fit  in  well  with  the  view  generally  entertained  of 
the  deadly  and  deadening  effects  of  the  Law.  The  in- 
convenient Psalms  of  the  later  periods  were  easily 
neutralised  by  divesting  them  of  all  individualistic 
tendency,  whilst  the  synagogue  was  placed  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Rabbis,  '*  whose  mechanical 
tendencies  are  well  known."  In  their  hands,  we  are 
told,  prayers  turn  into  rubrics,  and  it  is  with  an  especial 
delight  that  theologians  dwell  on  the  Rabbinical  laws  re- 
lating to  prayer,  as,  for  instance,  how  many  times  a  day 
a  man  ought  to  pray,  the  fixed  hours  for  prayer,  in  what 
parts  of  the  prayer  an  interruption  is  allowed,  which 
parts  of  the  prayer  require  more  devotion  than  others, 
and  similar  petty  little  questions  of  religious  casuistry 
in  which  the  Rabbi,  as  an  expert,  if  I  may  call  him 
so,  greatly  delighted.  But  these  writers  seem  to  over- 
look the  fact  that  the  very  framers  of  these  petty  laws 
were  the  main  composers  of  the  liturgy.  And  who  can 
say  what  the  Rabbi's  feelings  were  when  he  wrote,  for 
instance,  "  Forgive  us,  our  Father,  for  we  have  sinned"  ? 
The  word  "Father"  alone  suggests  a  world  of  such 
ideas  as  love,  veneration,  devotion,  and  childlike 
dependence  upon  God.  It  is  easy  enough  to  copy 
rubrics.  They  float  on  the  surface  of  the  so-called 
**Sea  of  the  Talmud,"  and  it  requires  only  a  certain 
indelicacy  of  mind,  or  what  Renan  would  have  called 
"the  vulgarity  of  criticism,"  to  skim  them  off,  and  pass 
them  on  to  the  world  as  samples  of  Jewish  synagogue 


156     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

life.  If  Life  and  Times  writers  would  only  dip  a  little 
deeper  into  this  sea,  they  would  notice  how  easily  the 
Rabbis  could  disregard  all  these  rubrics.  The  subject 
of  prayer  is  too  wide  to  be  dealt  with  here  even  in  a 
perfunctory  manner,  but  a  few  passages  at  least  may 
be  cited  which  will  illustrate  the  sentiment  of  the 
Rabbis  with  regard  to  this  topic.  Thus  we  read, 
with  reference  to  Jer.  148:  "God  is  the  Mikweh  of 
Israel,  which  word  the  Rabbis  take  to  mean  "the  source 
of  purity"  (Israel's  purification  being  estabUshed  by 
attachment  to  God).  "  God  says  to  Israel,  I  bade 
thee  read  thy  prayers  unto  me  in  thy  synagogues ; 
but  if  thou  canst  not,  pray  in  thy  house;  and  if  thou 
art  unable  to  do  this,  pray  when  thou  art  in  thy  field ; 
and  if  this  be  inconvenient  to  thee,  pray  on  thy  bed ; 
and  if  thou  canst  not  do  even  this,  think  of  me  in  thy 
heart."  ^  Prayer  is,  indeed,  as  the  Rabbis  call  it, 
"the  service  of  the  heart  " ;  though  man  should  praise 
the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  with  every  limb  in  his 
body,  even  as  David  did  who  praised  him  with  his  head, 
with  his  eyes,  with  his  mouth,  with  his  ears,  with  his 
throat,  with  his  tongue,  with  his  lips,  with  his  heart, 
with  his  reins,  with  his  hands,  with  his  feet,  as  it  is 
said,  "  All  my  bones  shall  say,  Lord  who  is  like  unto 
thee?"  (Ps.  35  10);  nay,  with  his  soul  and  his  breath.^ 

1  p.  A'.,  157  ^,  158  (2,  referring  to  the  meaning  "well"  or  "  cistern" 
rather  than  "hope." 

2  Taanith,  2  a.  Cf.  Sifre,  80  «  ;  M.  T.,  5  1,  about  the  prayers  of 
TH"'  (individual).  See  Mechilta  of  R.  SiJfion,  p.  151.  Cf.  also  above, 
p.  50,  note  2. 


THE  JOY  OF   THE  LAW  157 

Prayer,  and  the  recitation  of  the  Shema,  are  among 
the  things  which  keep  the  heart  of  Israel  in  exile 
awake/  and  God  requires  of  Israel  that,  at  least  in 
the  time  of  prayer,  they  should  give  him  all  their 
hearts ;  ^  that  is  to  say,  that  the  whole  of  man  should 
be  absorbed  in  his  prayer.  "  Prayer  without  devotion  is 
like  a  body  without  a  soul,"  is  a  common  Jewish 
proverb.  Indeed,  he  who  prays  should  direct  his  heart 
to  heaven,  nay,  he  must  consider  himself  as  if  the 
very  Divine  Presence  is  facing  him.^  God  himself 
teaches  Israel  how  to  pray  before  him ;  *  for  nothing  is 
more  beautiful  than  prayer;  it  is  more  beautiful  even 
than  good  works,  and  of  more  value  than  sacrifices.^ 
It  is  the  expression  of  Israel's  love  to  God ;  God  longs 
for  it.®  Prayer  is  Israel's  chiefest  joy."^  When  thou 
risest  to  pray,  let  thy  heart  rejoice  within  thee,  since 
thou  servest  a  God,  the  like  unto  whom  there  is  none 
(Ps.  100  3).  Hence  the  benediction  in  which  Israel 
thank  God  that  they  are  permitted  to  pray  to 
him.« 

And  here  I  must  again  be  allowed  an  allusion  to  per- 
sonal reminiscences.     The  following  passages   in   the 

1  See  Cant.  Rabba,  $-.2.  2  Tan.,  ^'2T\  i,  end. 

3  See  Berachoth,  31  ^,  and  Sanhedrin,  22  a. 
*  See  Rosk  Hashanah,  i^  b.     Cf.  above,  37. 
6  See  Si/re,  71  b,  and  Tan.,  Kin  i. 

6  See  M.  T.,  116  1. 

7  See  Yalkut  to  Ps.  100.     Cf.  M.  T.  to  this  chapter. 

8  See  Jer.  Berachoth,  3  d  (the  first  lines  on  the  top).     Cf.  Baer's 
remarks  to  the  j^nil  D^mtt,  p.  100. 


158     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Song  of  the  Unity  are  recited  in  some  congregations  on 

the  Eve  of  the  Day  of  Atonement :  — 

We  are  thy  people  and  thy  sheep,  who  deHght  to  obey 
thy  will. 

But  how  shall  we  serve,  since  our  hand  hath  no  power, 
and  our  sanctuary  is  burnt  with  fire  ? 

How  shall  we  serve  without  sacrifice  and  meat  offer- 
ing ?  for  we  are  not  yet  come  unto  our  rest, 

Neither  is  there  water  to  wash  away  defilement ;  lo ! 
we  are  upon  unpurified  ground. 

But  I  rejoice  at  thy  word,  and  I  am  come  according 
to  thy  bidding. 

For  it  is  written,  I  will  not  reprove  thee  for  thy  sacrifices, 
or  thy  burnt -offerings. 

Concerning  your  sacrifices  and  your  burnt-offerings  I 
commanded  not  your  fathers. 

What  have  I  asked,  and  what  have  I  sought  of  thee  but 
to  fear  me  ? 

To  serve  with  joy  and  a  good  heart  ? 

Behold,  to  hearken  is  better  than  sacrifice, 

And  a  broken  heart  than  pure  offering. 

The  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken  spirit. 

In  sacrifice  and  meat-offering  thou  delightest  not ;  sin- 
offering  and  burnt-offering  thou  hast  not  asked. 

I  will  build  an  altar  of  the  broken  fragments  of  my 
heart,  and  will  break  my  spirit  within  me. 

The  haughty  heart  I  will  humble ;  yea,  the  haughtiness 
of  mine  eyes,  and  I  will  rend  my  heart  for  the 
sake  of  the  Lord. 


THE  JOY  OF  THE  LAW  159 

My  broken  spirit,  that  is  thy  sacrifice.  Let  it  be 
acceptable  upon  thine  altar !  ^ 
But  only  one  who  has  seen  the  deep  despair  reflected 
on  the  faces  of  the  worshippers,  as  they  repeat  the  first 
stanzas  bewailing  the  loss  of  sacrifices  as  a  means  of 
atonement,  and  the  sudden  transition  to  the  highest 
degree  of  joy  and  cheerfulness  at  the  thought  expressed 
in  the  last  stanzas,  that  it  is  neither  burnt-offering  nor 
meat-offering  which  God  requires,  but  that  the  heart 
is  the  real  altar  and  the  service  of  the  heart  the  real 
sacrifice  —  only  one  who  has  witnessed  such  a  prayer- 
meeting  will  be  able  to  conceive  how  little  the  capacity 
of  the  Rabbi  to  pray,  and  to  rejoice  in  prayer,  was 
affected  by  the  rubrics,  and  how  superficial  is  the  com- 
mon conception  of  onlookers  on  this  subject. 

In  the  preceding  remarks  we  had  a  reference  to  a  say- 
ing of  R.  Zadok,  prohibiting  the  making  of  the  Torah 
a  means  of  aggrandising  one's  self,  and  another 
saying  of  Hillel  to  the  same  effect  .^  The  saying 
in  question  closes  with  the  words,  "  Lo,  whosoever 
makes  profit  from  the  words  of  the  Torah  removes  his 
life  from  the  world."  ^  This  brings  us  to  the  subject 
of  n^trS  (Lishmah),  playing  a  very  prominent  part  in 
Rabbinic  literature.  By  Lishmah  is  understood  the 
performance  of  the  Law  for  its  own  sake,  or  rather 

1  ^^^^'^  "n^tr,  first  day.  See  Service  of  the  Synagogue,  Davis  and 
Adler,  London,  1906,  vol.  I,  p.  41. 

2  See  above,  p.  145.  ^  Aboth,  \n. 


l6o     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

for  the  sake  of  him  who  wrought  (commanded)  it,  ex- 
cluding all  worldly  intentions.  Thus,  with  regard  to 
sacrifices,  the  words  of  Lev.  i  9  {^TD  TTitTl  H^*!)  are 
explained  to  mean  that  the  sacrifice  must  be  brought 
with  no  other  intention  but  that  of  pleasing  him  who 
created  the  world.^  The  service  of  God  should  be  as 
single-minded  as  he  is  single  in  the  world,  to  whom 
this  service  is  directed.^  "It  is  pleasing  unto  me  that 
I  commanded  and  my  will  was  done."  ^  With  refer- 
ence to  other  laws,  the  injunction  is,  "  Do  the  things 
(of  the  Torah)  for  the  sake  of  him  who  wrought  them, 
and  speak  in  them  for  their  own  sake."  ^  Indeed, 
the  Torah  is  only  then  pure  when  man  cleanses  him- 
self from  all  sin,  and  from  every  thought  of  profiting 
by  it,  so  that  he  must  not  expect  of  mankind  to  serve 
him  or  maintain  him,  because  he  is  a  scholar.^ 
Nay,  it  is  only  the  occupation  with  the  Torah  for  its 
own  sake  which  is  life,  ''but  if  thou  hast  not  per- 
formed the  words  of  the  Torah  in  this  manner,  they 
kill  thee."  ®  It  is  just  this  purity  of  motive  which 
forms  the  main  difference  ''  between  the  righteous 
and  the  wicked,  between  him  that  serveth  God  and 

^  T.  JC.,  7  c  and  8  c.  Cf.  Zebachim,  37  b.  See  also  below,  pp.  297 
and  298. 

2  T.  K.,  43  d.     See  below,  p.  258.  ^  sifre,  39  a  and  54  a. 

*  See  Nedarim,  62  a,  reading  D^UIS.  See,  however,  Sifre, 
84  b.  D.  E.  Z.  (ed.  Tawrogi)  has  both  readings.  Cf.  Bacher,  Ag. 
Tan.f  I  63.     Duran  in  his  commentary  to  m3i<,  5  4,  has  the  reading 

D^xstr  u^b  nnn  nnm  jbsjs  u^b. 

6  Mechilta  of  R.  Simon,  98. 

*  Sifre,  131  <5 ;   Taanith,  7  «  ;  cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  2  540. 


THE  JOY  OF  THE  LAW  i6i 

him  that  serveth  him  not "  (Malachi  3  is).^  The 
same  thing  apphes  also  to  other  laws.  Two  men 
feasted  upon  their  Passover  lamb.  The  one  ate  it  for 
the  sake  of  the  Mizwah,  the  other  devoured  it  in  the 
manner  of  a  glutton.  To  the  former  they  apply  the 
Scriptural  words,  "  The  righteous  shall  walk  in  them;  " 
to  the  latter,  "The  transgressor  shall  fall  therein '^ 
(Hosea  1410).^  This  is  of  course  the  highest  ideal 
of  the  religionist,  though  not  everybody  could  attain 
to  this  high  degree,  and  some  concessions  were  made 
in  this  respect.  Hence  such  statements  as  "Let 
a  man  be  occupied  in  the  study  of  the  Torah  and 
the  fulfilling  of  commandments  even  in  the  case 
when  they  are  not  performed  for  their  own  sake;" 
but  the  statement  closes  with  the  words,  "for 
this  occupation  will  lead  in  the  end  to  the  desired 
ideal  of  the  purer  intention."  This  is  in  harmony 
with  the  sentiment  expressed  by  another  Rabbi,  who 
was  wont  to  pray,  "  May  it  be  thy  will  that  you 
bring  peace  .  .  .  among  those  students  who  are  oc- 
cupied in  the  study  of  the  Torah,  both  who  do  it  for 
its  own  sake,  and  those  who  do  not  do  it  for  its  own 
sake.  And  that  these  latter  may  come  to  ultimately 
occupy  themselves  with  it  for  its  own  sake."  ^  In  any 
case,  this  selfish  occupation  was  considered  as  a  Torah 
wanting  in  grace.^ 

1  See  M.  T.,  31  9. 

2  See  JVazzr,  23  a.     See  also  Albo,  Ikkarim,  3  5  and  28. 

3  See Berachoth,  it  a.  *  ("TCn).     See  Sukkah,  49 b. 


i62      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

And  let  it  be  noticed  that  the  notion  of  Lishmah 
excluded  even  the  intention  of  fulfilling  a  law  with  the 
hope  of  getting  such  rewards  as  are  promised  by  the 
Scriptures.  Though  the  Rabbis  never  tired  of  urging 
the  belief  in  reward  and  punishment,  and  strove  to 
make  of  it  a  living  conviction,  they  yet  displayed  a 
constant  tendency  to  disregard  it  as  a  motive  for  action. 
The  saying  of  Antigonos  of  Socho,  ''  Be  not  like  servants 
that  serve  their  master  with  the  view  to  receive  re- 
ward," is  well  known/  All  the  commentators  on  the 
sayings  of  the  Fathers  explain  this  sentence  as  mean- 
ing that  love  pure  and  simple  is  the  only  worthy 
motive  of  the  worshipper.  But  we  must  not  look 
upon  this  saying  of  Antigonos  as  on  one  of  those 
theological  paradoxes  in  which  divines  of  all  creeds 
occasionally  indulge.  It  is  a  sentiment  running 
through  the  Rabbinic  literature  of  almost  every  age. 
Thus  the  words  in  Deut.  ii  13,  "To  love  the  Lord 
your  God,"  are  explained  to  mean:  ''Say  not,  I  will 
study  the  Torah  with  the  purpose  of  being  called 
''^age  or  Rabbi,  or  to  acquire  fortune,  or  to  be  rewarded 
for  it  in  the  world  to  come ;  but  do  it  for  the  sake  of  thy 
love  to  God,  though  the  glory  will  come  in  the  end."  ^ 
The  words  in  Ps.  112  1,  "Blessed  is  the  man  who 
deUghteth  greatly  in  his  commandments,"  are  inter- 
preted to  mean,  that  he  is  blessed  who  delighteth 
in  God's  commandments,  but  not  in  the  reward 
promised   for  his  commandments.^    This  proves,   by 

1  Adoik,  1:3.  2  Si/re,  84  a.      Cf.  above,  p.  68. 

3  Abodah  Zarah,  iga. 


THE  JOY  OF  THE  LAW  163 

the  way,  that  the  Rabbis  could  depart  from  the  letter 
of  the  Scripture  for  the  sake  of  the  spirit,  the  succeeding 
verses  in  this  very  Psalm  being  nothing  else  than  a 
description  of  the  reward  awaiting  the  pious  man  who 
fulfils  God's  commandments.  In  another  place,  those 
who,  in  view  of  Prov.  3  I6,  look  out  for  the  good  things 
which  are  on  the  left  side  of  wisdom,  namely,  riches  and 
honours,  are  branded  as  wicked  and  base.^  And  when 
David  said,  "I  hate  them  that  are  of  a  double  mind, 
but  thy  law  do  I  love,"  he  indicated  by  it,  according  to 
the  Rabbis,  his  contempt  for  mixed  motives  in  the  ser- 
vice of  God,  as  the  Law  should  not  be  fulfilled  either 
under  compulsion  or  through  fear,  but  only  from  the 
motive  of  love.  Indeed,  God  bears  evidence  to  the 
unselfishness  of  Israel  and  their  full  confidence  in  him, 
saying,  ''  I  gave  them  affirmative  commands  and  they 
received  them;  I  gave  them  negative  commands  and 
they  received  them,  and  though  I  did  not  explain  their 
reward,  they  said  nothing"  (making  no  objection).^  In 
the  devotional  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages  there  is 
hardly  a  single  work  in  which  man  is  not  warned 
against  serving  God  with  any  intention  of  receiving 
reward,  though,  of  course,  the  religionist  is  strongly 
urged  to  believe  that  God  does  reward  goodness  and 
does  punish  wickedness.^ 

1  See  Num.  R.,  22  9.  2  j[f^  f^^  ug  45^  and  ibid.,  119  1. 

3  See  WTUn  ^BD,  Parma,  p.  254.  Cf.  also  Azulai,  mXSnp  "Qltt, 
S.V.,  T\t2iW^.  See  also  above,  pp.  67  seq.  and  68  seq.  Cf.  also  Schechter, 
Studies  in  Judaism,  2d  series,  the  essay  on  Saints  and  Saintliness. 


l64     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Nor  does  salvation  exactly  depend  on  the  number 
of  the  commandments  man  accomplishes.     It  is  true 
/  that    every   law   gives    Israel   an  opportunity    of   ac- 
quiring merit  (Zachuth),  and    inheriting  thereby  the 
v^orld  to  come ;  for  which  reason  the  Holy  One,  blessed 
be  he,  multiplied  to  them  Torah  and  commandments.^ 
But    this    multiplication   only    aims    at    an    increase 
of  opportunities  enabling  man  to  accomplish  at  least 
one  law  in  a  perfect  manner,  which  alone  possesses 
the   virtue   of   saving.      "Even    he    who    has    done 
one  of  those  things  (enumerated  in  the  15th  Ps.)  is 
valued  as  much  as  if  he  had  done  all  those  things 
and  shall  never  be  moved,^  and  only  he  shall  not  escape 
the  mouth  of  Sheol  who  has  not  accomplished  a  single 
law."  ^    But  the  accomplishment  of  this  single  law  must 
be,  as  already  indicated,  in  the  most  perfect  way.     As 
R.    Saadya    Gaon    states    on    Talmudic    authority, 
the  worshipper  (Obed)  is  to  be  considered    the  man 
who  at  least  set  one  law  apart  for  himself  which  he 
should  never  transgress,  or  fall  short  of  in  any  way.^ 

1  See  Makkoth,  23  b,  Mishnah.  Cf.  Tan.  B.,  4  37  a,  and  Num.  R.y 
17  2,  and  Friedmann,  DTlBDi,  p.  23. 

2  See  Makkoth,  24  a-,  M.  T.,  16  7.  Cf.  also  Sanhedrin,  81  a.  It 
should  be  remarked  that  the  paraphrase  of  the  Rabbis  of  this  Ps.  and 
of  Ez.,  18  6  seq.,  implies  even  a  higher  standard  than  suggested  by  the 
literal  sense  of  the  Biblical  text. 

3  See  the  statement  of  R.  Jochanan  in  Makkoth,  ibid.  Cf.  Rab- 
binowicz  in  Variae  Lectiones,  a.  /. 

4  mum  mj1X2K,  5  :  3.  His  authority  \%  Jer.  Kiddushin,  6i  d.  As  an 
instance  of  such  a  law,  the  commandment  of  honouring  father  and 
mother  is  given  there. 


THE  JOY  OF  THE  LAW  165 

In  conformity  with  this  is  the  view  of  Maimonides,  who 
declares  that  it  is  an  essential  belief  of  the  Torah  that 
if  a  man  fulfils  even  (only)  one  of  the  six  hundred  and 
thirteen  laws  in  a  perfect  manner,  so  that  it  is  not 
accompanied  by  any  worldly  consideration  but  done 
for  the  sake  of  the  love  of  God,  he  becomes  thereby 
worthy  of  the  life  of  the  world  to  come/  Maimonides 
illustrates  his  point  by  the  story  of  a  Rabbi  (of  the 
Tannaitic  age),  who  was  about  to  die  the  death  of  a 
martyr,  but  shortly  before  he  suffered,  he  discussed 
with  his  friend  his  prospects  of  sharing  in  the  life  of 
the  world  to  come.  The  answer  he  received  was  to 
the  effect  that  if  ever  there  came  "an  action  into  his 
hands,"  he  may  hope  for  it ;  that  is,  if  he  ever  met  vdth 
a  case  requiring  a  special  effort  to  carry  the  law  into 
effect.  The  Rabbi  then  remembered  that  in  his  ca- 
pacity as  treasurer  of  the  charities  in  his  city  such  a  case 
did  occur,  and  that  he  performed  his  duty  to  the  full. 
It  is  thus  neither  the  martyrdom  which  he  was  to  un- 
dergo nor  the  routine  life  in  accordance  with  the  law 
which  may  readily  be  expected  of  any  Rabbi,  but  the 
accomplishment  of  one  commandment  in  a  perfect 
way  that  secures  salvation.^     Somewhat  similar  is  the 

1  See  Maimonides,  Commentary  to  Mishnah  Makkoth,  3  I6.  It  is 
not  impossible  that  both  R.  Saadya  and  Maimonides  were  also  thinking 
of  Mechilta  33  b,  where  we  read  in  the  name  of  R.  Nehemiah,  "  He 
who  receives  upon  himself  (even)  a  single  law,  in  faith,  is  worthy  that 
the  Holy  Spirit  should  rest  upon  him." 

2  See  Maimonides,  ibid.  See  also  Abodah  Zarah^  \2>  a.  Cf.  Albo, 
Ikkarim,  5  29. 


i66     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

following  story :  A  certain  Rabbi  who  held  communion 
with  Elijah  asked  the  prophet  one  day  when  standing 
in  the  market  whether  he  could  discover  among  the 
crowd  there  any  person  destined  for  the  life  of  the 
world  to  come.  "No,"  answered  the  prophet. 
Subsequently  Elijah  perceived  a  certain  person,  then 
he  said  to  the  Rabbi,  "  This  is  the  man  of  the  world 
to  come."  Upon  inquiry  by  the  Rabbi,  it  was  found 
that  he  was  a  jailer,  and  that  he  possessed  the  merit 
of  watching  over  the  chastity  of  the  daughters  of  Israel, 
whom  misfortune  brought  under  his  authority.  A  little 
later,  the  prophet  again  pointed  out  two  more  individ- 
uals as  men  of  the^world  to  come.  When  the  Rabbi 
asked  after  their  profession  they  answered,  "We  are 
cheerful  persons  and  cheer  up  the  depressed  ones. 
Again,  when  we  see  two  persons  quarrelling,  we  en- 
deavour to  make  peace  between  them."^ 

It  must  further  be  noted  that  even  mere  negative 
virtues  are  not  without  a  certain  saving  power.  "He 
who  refrains  from  committing  a  sin,  they  reward  him 
as  if  he  accomplished  a  commandment."  ^  It  should 
however  be  stated  that  this  view  is  greatly  modified  by 
some  other  opinions  that  only  admit  the  merit  of  this 
negative  disposition  when  the  temptation  to  sin  was  very 
great,  or  when  the  man  out  of  conscientious  scruples 
abstained  from  an  action,  the  sinful  feature  of  which 

1  See  Taanith,  22  a  and  Jer.  Taanith,  64  b.     Cf.  also  Albo,  ibid. 

2  See  Mishnah  Makkotk,  3  15.  Cf.  Si/re,  125  a,  Kiddushin^  39  by 
and_/?r.  Kiddushitty  6\  d. 


THE  JOY  OF  THE  LAW  167 

was  not  fully  established/  It  is  further  modified 
by  the  following  statement:  "A  man  might  think," 
the  Rabbis  teach,  '^  considering  that  he  avoids  every 
opportunity  of  sin  and  is  on  his  guard  against  evil 
(with  his  tongue)  and  falsehood,  he  can  now  indulge 
in  sleep  (idleness),  neither  committing  sin  nor  doing 
good;  therefore  it  is  said  'Depart  from  evil  and  do 
good,'"  (Ps.  34  u).  And  by  "good"  is  meant  the 
occupation  with  the  Torah.^ 

The  real  motive  of  this  enthusiasm  for  the  Law  must 
be  sought  in  other  sources  than  the  hope  of  reward. 
Those  who  keep  the  commandments  of  God  are  his 
lovers.  And  when  the  lover  is  asked,  Why  art  thou 
carried  away  to  be  burned,  stoned,  or  crucified  ?  he  an- 
swers. Because  I  have  studied  the  Torah,  or,  Because  I 
have  circumcised  my  son,  or.  Because  I  have  kept  the 
Sabbath ;  but  he  considers  the  suffering  as  wounds  in- 
flicted upon  him  for  the  sake  of  his  beloved  one,  and, 
his  love  is  returned  by  the  love  of  God.^  The  Law  is 
thus  a  means  of  strengthening  the  mutual  relations  of 
love  between  God  and  his  people.^  The  fulfilment  of 
the  Law  was,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Rabbis,  a  witnessing 
on  the  part  of  the  Jews  to  God's  relationship  to  the 
world.  "Why  does  this  man,"  they  say,  "refrain  from 
work  on  the  Sabbath  ?  why  does  he  close  his  business 
on  the  seventh  day?     He  does  so  in  order  to  bear 

1  See  Kiddushin,  31  b,  3Lnd/er.  Kiddushin,  61  d.  Cf.  also  M.  T.,  I  7. 

2  See  Abodah  Zarah,  18  b  and  19  a,  and  M.  T.,  i  6. 

8  Mechilta,  68  b.  4  See  Mechilta,  98  a. 


1 68     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

witness  to  the  fact  of  God's  creation  of  the  world, 
and  to  his  providence  over  it."  ^  The  Law,  accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbis,  was  a  source  of  hohness.  Each 
new  commandment  with  which  God  blesses  Israel 
adds  holiness  to  his  people;  but  it  is  holiness  which 
makes  Israel  to  be  God's  own.^  They  deduce  this 
doctrine  from  Exod.  20  so,  which  verse  they  explain 
to  mean  that  it  is  the  fact  of  Israel  being  holy  men 
t2?np  ^ti?]^  which  gives  them  the  privilege  of  belong- 
ing to  God.  Hence  the  formula  in  many  benedictions : 
"Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  .  .  .  who  hast 
sanctified  us  by  thy  commandments,  and  found  delight 
in  us."  ^  Another  version  of  the  same  sort  is,  "  Be- 
loved are  the  commandments  by  which  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  exalted  the  seed  of  his  friend  Abraham 
and  gave  them  unto  Israel  with  the  purpose  of  beauti- 
fying and  glorifying  them;  whilst  Israel,  his  holy 
people,  and  his  inheritance,  glorify  his  name  for  the 
commandments  and  statutes  he  gave  them.  And  it  is 
because  of  these  commandments  that  Israel  are  called 
holy.^  These  reasons,  namely,  the  motive  of  love,  the 
privilege  of  bearing  witness  to  God's  relationship  to  the 
world,  the  attainment  of  holiness  in  which  the  Law 
educated  Israel,  as  well  as  the  other  spiritual  motives 
which  I  have  already  pointed  out,  such  as  the  joy  felt 

1  See  Mechilta,  104  a.  ^  jud,^  98  a.  ^  Baer,  p.  198. 

4  See  "iDl^n  1BD,  ed.  Mantua,  126  b.  The  diction  of  the  passage 
shows  that  it  has  been  taken  from  some  ancient  Midrash.  See  also 
above,  p.  147.  and  below,  p.  209. 


THE  JOY   OF  THE  LAW  169 

by  the  Rabbis  in  the  performance  of  the  Law  and  the 
harmony  which  the  Rabbis  perceived  in  the  Ufe  lived 
according  to  the  Torah,  were  the  true  sources  of  Israel's 
enthusiasm  for  the  Law.  At  least  they  were  powerful 
enough  with  the  more  refined  and  nobler  minds  in  Israel 
to  enable  them  to  dispense  utterly  with  the  motives  of 
reward  and  punishment;  though,  as  in  every  other 
religion,  these  lower  motives  may  have  served  as  con- 
current incentives  to  a  majority  of  believers. 


XII 

THE   ZACHUTH   OF   THE   FATHERS 
Imputed  Righteousness  and  Imputed  Sin 

The  last  chapter  having  treated  of  the  righteousness 
achieved  through  the  means  of  the  Law  and  the  sin 
involved  by  breaking  it,  it  v^ill  be  convenient  to 
deal  here  v^ith  the  doctrine  of  the  T\y2X  ni^t  (the 
Merits  of  the  Fathers),  the  merits  of  whose  righteous- 
ness are  charged  to  the  account  of  Israel.  This  doc- 
trine plays  an  important  part  in  Jewish  theology,  and 
has  its  counterpart  in  the  belief  that  under  certain 
conditions  one  person  has  also  to  suffer  for  the  sins  of 
another  person.  We  have  thus  in  Judaism  both  the 
notion  of  imputed  righteousness  and  imputed  sin. 
They  have,  however,  never  attained  such  significance 
either  in  Jewish  theology  or  in  Jewish  conscience  as  it 
is  generally  assumed.  By  a  happy  inconsistency,  in 
the  theory  of  salvation,  so  characteristic  of  Rabbinic 
theology,  the  importance  of  these  doctrines  is  reduced 
to  very  small  proportions,  so  that  their  effect  was  in 
the  end  beneficial  and  formed  a  healthy  stimulus  to 
conscience. 

The  term  rilDl  (Zachuth)  is  not  to  be  found  in  the 
170 


THE   ZACHUTH  OF   THE  FATHERS  171 

Bible,  though  the  verb  occurs  in  the  sense  of  being  pure 
or  of  being  cleansed.^  In  the  Rabbinic  Hterature,  the 
verb  HDl  is  sometimes  used  as  a  legal  term  meaning  to 
be  acquitted,  to  be  in  the  right,  to  have  a  valid  claim: 
whilst  the  noun  Zachuth  means  acquittal.^  Occa- 
sionally it  also  means  to  be  worthy  of  a  thing,  or  to  be 
privileged.^  In  the  pi^el  it  means  to  argue,  to  plead  for 
acquittal.^  Further,  in  a  theological  sense,  to  lead 
to  righteousness,^  to  cause  one  or  to  give  one  the 
opportunity  to  acquire  a  merit,  while  the  noun  Zachuth 
is  used  in  the  sense  of  merit,  virtue,  which  under 
certain  conditions  have  a  protective  or  an  atoning 
influence.^ 

For  the  sake  of  obtaining  a   clearer  view  of  the 
subject,  which  is  rather  complicated,  we  shall  treat  it  ^ 
under  the  following  headings:     (i)   The  Zachuth  of 
a  Pious  Ancestry;    (2)  The  Zachuth  of  a  Pious  Con- 
temporary;   (3)  The  Zachuth  of  the  Pious  Posterity. 

(i)  The  Zachuth  of  the  pious  ancestry  may  generally 
be  described  as  the  mD^5  mDt  (the  Zachuth  of  the 
Fathers),  but  the  term  Fathers  is  largely  limited  in  Rab- 
binic literature  to  the  three  patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  God's  covenant  with  whom  is  so  often  ap- 

1  See  Micah  6  11;   Ps.  119  9;  Job  25  4. 

2  See  Baba  Meziah,  107  b',  Misknah,  ibid.,  I  4;  Mishnah  Sanhedrin, 
4  1.     See  Jastrow's  Dictionary,  s.v.     See  also  Bacher,    Terminologies 

I  50. 

3  See  Sota,  17  a;    Chagigah,  5  b. 

*  See,  for  instance,  Mishnah  Sanhedrin,  3  5, 

^  See  Aboth,  5  18.         ^  See/i^r.  Kiddiishin,  61  d,  and  P.  R.,  38  b. 


172 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 


pealed  to  already  in  the  Bible.  The  Rabbinic  rule  is, 
"They  call  not  Fathers  but  the  three  (patriarchs),  and 
they  call  not  Mothers  but  four"  (Sarah,  Rebeccah, 
Rachel,  and  Leah)/  The  last  statement  with  regard  to 
the  Mothers  suggests  also  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as 
the  nin)::^  mDt  (the  Zachuth  of  the  Mothers).  This  is 
in  conformity  with  the  Rabbinic  statement  in  reference 
to  Lev.  26  42  regarding  God's  remembering  his  covenant 
with  the  patriarchs,  that  there  is  also  such  a  thing  as 
the  covenant  with  the  Mothers.^  In  another  place 
they  speak  even  distinctly  of  the  Zachuth  of  the 
Mothers,  "If  thou  seest  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers 
and  the  Zachuth  of  the  Mothers,  that  they  are  on  the 
decline,  then  hope  for  the  grace  of  God."  ^  And  it 
would  even  seem  that  they  would  invoke  the  Zachuth 
of  the  Mothers  together  with  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers 
in  their  prayers  on  public  fasts  prescribed  on  the  occa- 
sion of  general  distress.*  In  connection  with  the  same 
verse  (Lev.  26  42),  the  Rabbis  speak  also  of  the  cove- 
nant with  the  Tribes  ("the  servants  of  the  Lord"), 
to  whom  God  has  also  sworn  as  he  did  to  the  patriarchs, 

1  Berachoth,  i6  b.  See,  however,  D.  E.  Z.,  ch.  i,  where  they  speak  of 
seven  Fathers  who  entered  into  a  covenant  with  God.  In  Sh-ach 
(heading  to  c.  44),  the  expression  Fathers  is  even  more  extensive. 

2  T.K.,  112  c. 

3  See  /er.  Sanhedrin,  27  d,  and  Lev.  R.,  36  6.  Cf.  commentaries, 
and  see  also  Cant.  R.,  2  9. 

*  See  Pseudo-Jonathan  to  Exod.  18  9  and  Mechilta,  $4  a.  In  our 
liturgy,  the  invocation  to  the  Zachuth  of  the  Mothers  is  very  rare.  A 
Piyut  (hymn)  by  R.  Gershom  b.  Judah,  recited  on  the  eve  of  the 
New  Year,  has  a  reference  to  the  covenant  of  the  Mothers. 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  173 

and  whose  Zachuth  Moses  is  also  supposed  to  have 
invoked,  as  he  did  that  of  the  Fathers.^ 

It  is,  however,  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  which 
figures  most  prominently  in  Rabbinic  hterature.  The 
thought  of  the  creation  of  the  Fathers  preceded  the 
creation  of  the  world.^  They  are  the  rocks  and  the 
hills,^  but  also  the  foundations  of  the  world,  for  it  is 
on  their  Zachuth  that  the  world  is  based/  Abraham 
is  the  very  petra  on  which  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he,  estabUshed  the  world,^  as  it  is  said,  "For  the 
foundations  of  the  earth  are  the  Lord's"  (i  Sam.  2  8), 
whilst  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  is  also  occasionally 
called  "rock." « 

It  is  true  that  the  Fathers  are  not  considered  abso- 
lutely perfect.  They  could  not,  according  to  some 
authorities,  stand  the  rebuke  (or  judgement)  of  God.^ 
And  though  their  position  is  so  exalted  that  their 
abode  would  have  been  translated  into  the  regions 
above  had  they  wished  it,  nevertheless,  they  did  not 
receive  the  epithet  "Holy"  until  they  died.^  Yet,  in 
general,    they    are    considered    as    the    greatest     and 

'^  T.  K.,  112  c;  Exod.  R.,  44  9  and  10.  Cf.  Isa.  63  17.  See  also 
P.  R.,  191  a. 

2  P.  R.  E.,  3.     Cf.  Gen.  R.,  i  4. 

3  See  Mechilta.  54  a,  and  Sifre,  1 40  a.     Cf.  also  Exod.  R.,  28  1. 
*  Exod.  R.,  156. 

^  See  Yalkut  io  Pent.,  §  766,  reproduced  from  the  Yelamdenu.  Cf. 
above,  p.  59. 

6  See  Yalkut  to  Pent.,  §  763,  reproduced  from  the  Yelamdenu. 
"^  See  Arackin,  16  a.  ^  Af.  T.,  162.     See  also  commentary. 


174 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 


the  most  weighty  among  Israel/  except  the  King 
Messiah,  according  to  certain  Rabbis  also  except 
Moses.^  It  is  because  of  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers, 
or  the  Covenant  with  the  Fathers,  that  Israel  was 
redeemed  from  Egypt. ^  That  Moses  was  permitted 
to  ascend  Mount  Sinai  and  to  mingle  there  with  the 
celestials  and  receive  the  Torah,  was  also  for  the  sake 
of  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers.^  When  Israel  sinned 
in  the  desert  (by  the  worshipping  of  the  golden  calf), 
Moses  uttered  ever  so  many  prayers  and  supplications 
and  he  was  not  answered.  Indeed,  his  pleading  for 
Israel  lasted  not  less  than  forty  days  and  forty  nights, 
but  all  in  vain.  Yet  when  he  said,  "  Remember  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob  thy  servants"  (Exod.  32  13), 
his  prayer  was  heard  at  once.^  One  Rabbi  gets  so 
exalted  at  the  thought  of  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers 
that  he  exclaims  to  the  effect :  Blessed  are  the  children 
whose  fathers  have  a  Zachuth,  because  they  profit  by 
their  Zachuth;  blessed  are  Israel  who  can  rely  upon 
the  Zachuth  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob,  it  is 
their  Zachuth  which  saved  them.  It  saved  them  on 
the  occasion  of  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  when  they 
worshipped  the  golden  calf,  and  in  the  times  of  Elijah, 

1  See  Sifre,  94  a. 

2  See  Tan.  B.,  i  7o,  text  and  commentary,  and  Sifre,  27  b. 

3  See  Exod.  R.,  i  36.  See  also  Mechilta,  48  a,  where  the  patriarchs 
are  described  as  sinless.  The  opinions  seem  to  have  been  divided. 
Cf.  i<m:«"I  ^"IBD,  ed.  Buber,  25  a.  See  also  Nachmanides'  commentary 
to  Exod.  12  10. 

*  Gen.  R.,  28  1  and  2.  ^  Shabbath,  42  a.     Cf.  Exod.  R.,  44  1. 


THE   ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  175 

and  so  in  every  generation.^  Indeed,  Israel  is  com- 
pared to  a  vine,  because  as  the  vine  is  itself  alive,  but 
is  supported  by  dead  wood,  so  Israel  is  living  and  last- 
ing, but  is  leaning  upon  the  deceased  Fathers.^  It  is  by 
reason  of  this  support,  that  the  righteous  deeds  of  the 
Fathers  are  remembered  before  God.  "Who  was  so 
active  before  thee  (God)  as  Abraham,  the  lover  of  God  ? 
Who  was  so  active  before  thee  as  Isaac,  who  allowed 
himself  to  be  bound  upon  the  altar?  Who  was  so 
active  before  thee  as  Jacob,  who  was  so  thankful  to 
God?'^^  Therefore,  whenever  Israel  comes  into  dis- 
tress they  call  into  remembrance  the  deeds  of  the 
Fathers.* 

Besides  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers,  kut  i^oxvv 
limited  to  the  patriarchs,  there  is  also  apparently  the 
Zachuth  of  every  man's  ancestry.  The  father,  we 
are  taught,  transfers  (HDlt)  to  his  son  the  benefits  of 
beauty,  strength,  wealth  and  wisdom  and  (old)  age.^ 

1  Ag.  Ber.,  ch.  10.  2  ^xod.  R,,  44  1.     Cf.  Lev.  R.,  36  2. 

^  See  Cant.  R.,  i  4.  The  special  activities  here  are  supplied  from 
Si/re,  p.  73  d. 

*  Aggadath  Shir  Hashirim^  p.  14.  With  regard  to  the  sacrifice  of 
Isaac,  playing  such  an  important  part  in  the  liturgy,  see  Midrashim  to 
Gen.,  ch.  22;  P.  K.^  154  a  and  3,  text  and  notes,  and  P.  R.,  171  b,  and 
reference  given  there.  Cf.  also  MHG.,  314  seq.,  and  Beer,  Leben 
Abrahams,  pp.  57  seq.,  175  seq. 

^  Mishnah  Eduyoth,  2  9.  Cf.  Tosephta,  ibid.,  p.  456,  and  Tosephta 
Sanhedrin,  4  32,  and  Jer.  Kiddushin,  61  a.  See  also  63  c,  and  refer- 
ences, and  Tan.  B.,  i  64  b.  Cf.  also  Kinyan  Torah ;  A.  R.  N., 
55  bj  note  H,  and  60  b,  note  24,  and  Friedmann,  DTISDJ,  pp.  19  and  20, 
text  and  notes. 


176     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

Though  these  benefits  are  all  personal  and  merely 
hereditary,  it  would  seem  that  they  were  not  quite 
dissociated  in  the  mind  of  the  Rabbis  from  the  notion 
connected  generally  with  Zachuth  and  its  theological 
possibilities.  This  is  the  impression,  at  least,  we 
receive  from  the  remark  of  one  of  the  ancient  Rabbis, 
who  declares  that  these  benefits  cease  with  the  moment 
man  has  attained  his  majority,  when  he  becomes 
responsible  for  his  conduct,  and  that  it  depends  upon 
bis  own  actions  whether  these  benefits  should  continue 
or  not.^  In  the  well-known  controversy  between  the 
patriarch  Rabban  Gamaliel  the  Second  and  his  oppo- 
nents, the  general  opinion  was  that  preference  should 
be  given  to  R.  Eliezer  b.  Azariah,  above  other  nomi- 
nees, because  he  was  a  man  who  enjoyed  the  Zachuth 
of  his  fathers,  having  been  a  descendant  of  Ezra.^ 
"The  son  of  fathers"  (that  is,  a  man  of  noble  descent) 
was  generally  respected,  though  some  would  place 
him  below  the  scholar  or  "the  son  of  the  Torah."  ^ 
Indeed,  he  who  had  Zachuth  of  his  fathers  was 
thought  that  he  could  with  less  risk  expose  himself 
to  danger  than  any  other  man.*  They  were  also 
considered  fit  to  act  as  the  representatives  of  com- 
munities.     "Let  all  men,"  said  a  Rabbi,  "who  are 

1  See  Tosephta  Eduyoth,  ibid.,  and  compare  Maimonides'  commen- 
tary to  the  Mishnah,  ibid.  From  the  references  given  in  A.  R.  N.,  ibid., 
and  Friedmann,  DTlSDJ,  ibid.,  it  is  also  evident  that  the  transferring  of 
benefits  are  a  special  privilege  of  the  righteous.  Cf.  also  the  Responsa 
of  the  Geonini,  ed.  Harkavy,  p.  176. 

2  Berachoth,  27  a.     ^  See  Menac/iolh,  53  a.      *  See  Shabbath,  129  b. 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  177 

labouring  with  a  Congregation  (that  is,  leaders  of 
communities  occupied  in  social  duties),  act  with  them 
in  the  name  of  heaven,  for  the  Zachuth  of  the  fathers 
sustains  them."  And  the  larger  the  number  of  these 
righteous  fathers,  the  more  effective  is  the  Zachuth  by 
which  their  children  profit.^ 

All  these  statements,  however,  with  their  exaggerating 
importance  of  the  Zachuth  of  a  righteous  ancestry, 
are  greatly  qualified  by  another  series  of  Rabbinic 
statements,  reducing  the  Zachuth  to  small  proportions. 
With  regard  to  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  (or  patri- 
archs), we  have  the  astonishing  assertion  by  the  Rabbis 
that  this  Zachuth  was  discontinued  long  ago.  The 
passage  in  question  begins  with  the  words,  "  When  did 
the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  cease?"  In  a  parallel 
passage,  it  runs,  "How  long  did  the  Zachuth  of  the 
Fathers  last?"  Various  dates  are  fixed  by  various 
Rabbis,  but  none  of  them  is  later  than  the  age  of 
the  King  Hezekiah.  The  Scriptural  proofs  adduced 
by  these  Rabbis  are  not  very  cogent.  The  way,  how- 
ever, in  which  the  question  is  put  impresses  one 
with  the  conviction  that  this  cessation  of  the  Zachuth 
of  the  Fathers  was  a  generally  accepted  fact  and  that  the 
only  point  in  doubt  was  the  exact  date  when  this  cessa- 
tion took  place. ^  But  when  this  date  was  reached, 
the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  exclaimed,  ''Until  now 
you  possessed  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers,  but  for  the 

1  Aboth,  2  12.    See  also  M.  T.,  59  1. 

2  See  Shabbathy  55  a  ;  Jer.  Sanhedrin,  27  d  \   and  Lev.  R.,  39  6. 

N 


178     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

future,  every  one  will  depend  on  his  own  actions.  I 
shall  not  deal  with  you  as  I  dealt  with  Noah  (who, 
according  to  certain  Rabbis,  protected  with  his  Zachuth 
his  unworthy  sons).  Fathers  will  no  longer  save  their 
children."  ^  Of  course,  Israel  need  not  despair,  for 
when  every  Zachuth  of  the  ancestral  piety  disappears, 
Israel  can  always  fall  back  on  the  grace  of  God,  never 
to  be  removed.^  Thus  on  the  day  when  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  will  judge  Israel,  the  latter  will  look  at 
the  Fathers  that  they  should  plead  for  them,  but  there 
is  no  father  who  can  save  his  son,  and  no  man  can 
save  his  brother  in  this  distress.  Then  they  will  lift 
up  their  eyes  to  their  Father  in  Heaven.  In  another 
place,  the  same  thought  is  expressed  to  the  following 
effect  :  Those  generations  (who  passed  through  dis- 
tress) will  say  unto  him,  "  Master  of  the  World,  those 
of  yore  had  the  Fathers,  whose  Zachuth  stood  by  them, 
but  we  are  orphans,  having  no  father,  but  thou  hast 
written,  ^  For  in  thee  the  fatherless  findeth  mercy  '  " 
(Hosea  144).^  There  is  however  one  Rabbi  who  ob- 
jects to  all  the  dates  given,  maintaining  that  the  Zachuth 

1  Ag.  Ber.,  ch.  lo.  The  authority  of  Ag.  Ber.  seems  to  be  an  old 
Baraitha.  Cf.  Midrash  Tannahn^  p.  62,  §  9,  where  it  even  seems 
that  the  Zachuth  of  Noah  continued  much  longer  than  the  Zachuth  of 
the  Fathers,  Israel  only  living  on  the  Zachuth  of  the  commandments. 
See  also  Tan.  ^2i''1,  §  13,  with  reference  to  Gen.  31  42,  where  the  remark  is 
made  that  the  Zachuth  of  (honest)  handicraft  is  greater  than  the 
Zachtith  of  the  Fathers.     Cf.  Berachoth,  8  a. 

■^  Lev.  R.,  ibid.  See  above,  p.  172,  note  3,  with  regard  to  the  Zachuth 
of  the  Mothers. 

8  See  M.  T.y  121  i;   Ag.  Ber.,  ch.  83. 


THE   ZACHUTH  OF   THE  FATHERS  179 

of  the  Fathers  lasts  forever,  and  that  Israel  can  always 
appeal  to  it,  as  it  is  said,  "For  the  Lord,  thy  God, 
is  a  merciful  God;  he  will  not  forsake  thee,  neither 
destroy  thee,  nor  forget  the  covenant  of  thy  fathers 
which  he  sware  unto  them"  (Deut.  4  3i)/  This, 
however,  is  more  of  an  appeal  to  the  covenant  with  the 
Fathers  than  to  the  Zachuth,  the  covenant  being  un- 
conditional and  everlasting,  independent  of  Israel's 
actions.^  ''And  the  truth  of  God  endureth  forever" 
(Ps.  117  2),  is  the  covenant  which  God  has  established 
with  the  Fathers.^  This  is  in  accordance  with  the 
remark  of  one  of  the  mediaeval  commentators  of  the 
Talmud,  who  says,  "Though  the  Zachuth  of  the 
Fathers  has  ceased,  the  covenant  of  the  Fathers  never 
ended."  He  points  to  the  liturgy  where  we  bring  into 
remembrance  the  covenant,  not  the  Zachuth ^  of  the 
Fathers.^  Another  commentator,  again,  explains  that 
it  is  only  the  very  wicked  who  may  not  rely  any  longer 

'^Jer.  Sanhedrin,  27  d.     Cf.  Lev.  R.,  39  6. 

2  Remarkable  is  the  expression  in  the  Mechilta  of  R.  Simon,  p.  94, 

D^Dn  man  mnx  m-a. 

^  M.  T.,  117  2. 

4  See  Tosafoth  Shabbath,  55  <z.  The  appeal  to  the  Zachuth  of  the 
Fathers  is  hardly  represented  in  the  original  prayers,  except  if  we  take 
as  such  the  words,  "  who  rememberest  the  pious  deeds  of  the  patri- 
archs," in  the  first  benediction  of  the  Eighteen  Benedictions.  These 
words,  however,  are  omitted  in  the  most  ancient  versions  of  the 
Eighteen  Benedictions.  To  the  covenant  with  the  Fathers,  however, 
we  have  a  very  emphatic  appeal  in  the  J/z/ja/ (Additional)  Prayer  of 
the  New  Year.  It  is  in  the  later  liturgy  where  the  Zachuth  of  the 
Fathers  plays  such  an  important  part.  See  Zunz,  Synagogale  Poesie, 
p.  455.     Cf.  Rev.  S.  Levy's  Original  Virtue,  p.  7. 


l8o     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

on  the  Zachulh  of  the  Fathers,  whilst  the  righteous 
still  profit  by  it.  He  further  suggests  that  together 
with  prayer  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  may  prove 
efficacious  even  now.  This  opinion  receives  some 
support  from  a  statement  of  an  ancient  Rabbi,  who 
declares  that  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers,  which  was  so 
potent  a  factor  on  the  occasion  of  the  exodus  from 
Egypt,  would  have  been  of  little  use  but  for  the  fact 
that  Israel  did  repentance  in  time,  since  there  was 
against  their  account  also  the  consideration  that  they 
were  soon  to  commit  the  sin  of  the  golden  calf.^ 
Generally,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Zachuth  of  the 
Fathers  still  retained  its  hold  on  Jewish  consciousness, 
at  least  in  its  aspect  of  the  covenant,  if  not  directly, 
as  a  fountain  of  grace  on  which  the  nation  can  rely 
at  all  times.  In  fact,  the  two  aspects  are  sometimes 
closely  combined.  Thus  we  are  told  that  God  removes 
the  sin  of  Israel  on  account  of  the  Zachuth  of  the 
conditions  (or  covenant)  which  he  made  with  Abraham, 
their  father  (between  the  Pieces).^  Again,  ''When 
Moses  the  Prophet  began  to  say  those  words  (the  Curses 
of    Deut.    28    15-68)  .  .  .  the   Fathers    of    the  World 

1  See  the  commentaries  to  Lev.  R.,  36  6,  and  Exod.  R.,  1  m.  Cf. 
Beer,  Leben  Abrahams,  p.  202  seq. 

2  See  Catit.  R.,  i  14.  Cf.  Gen.  15  10.  Cf.  also  Deut.  R.,  2  23,  where 
the  verse  to  prove  the  effect  of  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  upon  the 
redemption  is  Deut.  4  31,  "  For  the  Lord  .  .  .  will  not  .  .  .  forget  the 
covenant  of  thy  fathers  which  he  sware  unto  them."  See  also  Deut. 
R.,  6  4,  where  they  speak  of  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers,  the  covenant 
and  the  oaths,  which  are  afterwards  reduced  to  the  Zachith  of  the 
Fathers  alone. 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF   THE  FATHERS  i8i 

(the  patriarchs)  Ufted  their  voices  from  their  graves 
.  .  .  and  said,  'Woe  to  our  children  when  they  are 
guilty,  and  all  these  curses  come  upon  them.     How 
will   they    bear   them?      Will   he    make   an   end   of 
them,  as  our  Zachuth  will  not  protect  them,  and  there 
will  be  no  man  who  will  pray  for  them?'     Then  there 
came  a  daughter  voice  from  the  high  heavens,  and  thus 
she  said,  '  Fear  not,  ye  Fathers  of  the  World.     Even 
if  the  Zachuth  of  the  generations  should  cease,  your 
Zachuth  will  never  end,  nor  will  the  covenant  I  made 
with  you  be  dissolved  and  (these)  will  protect  them.'"  ^ 
It  was  different  with  the  Zachuth  of  the  fathers,  or 
ancestral  piety  in  general,   where  no   such  covenant 
exists.     Various  passages  have  also  been  reproduced 
in  proof  of  the  Rabbinic  belief  in  this  Zachuth}    It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  remind   one  of  the    Biblical    au- 
thority for  this  belief,  the  very  Decalogue  containing 
the  words,  "  For  I  the  Lord  thy  God  am  a  jealous  God, 
visiting  the  iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children  unto 
the  third  and  fourth  generations  of  them  that  hate  me ; 
and  showing  mercy  unto  thousands  of  them  that  love 
me,  and  keep  my  commandments"  (Exod.  20.  5  and  6). 
Some    Rabbis,   urging  the  plural   "unto  thousands," 
(meaning  at  least  two  thousand),  infer  from  this  that 
the  period  of  grace  is  to  last  five  hundred  times  as 
long  as  that  of  punishment,^  the  visiting  of  iniquity 
extending  only  to  the  third  and  fourth  generations. 

1  Pseudo-Jonathan,  Deut.  28  15.  2  gee  above,  p.  175  seq. 

3  See  Tosefta  Sotah,  298;   Sotah,  ii  a.     Cf.   Yoma,  76  a. 


i82     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Other  Rabbis  explain  these  words  to  stand  for 
generations  of  indefinite  number  and  without  end/ 
or,  as  it  is  expressed  in  another  place,  by  the  accom- 
plishment of  a  religious  act  man  acquires  merit  for 
himself  and  for  his  posterity,  "until  the  end  of  all 
generations."  ^  But  this  Zachuth  experiences  many 
limitations.  Thus,  with  reference  to  Deut.  7  9,  in 
which  the  extension  of  this  Zachuth  is  confined  to  a 
thousand  generations,  and  which  the  Rabbis  took  as 
contradicting  the  verse  just  quoted  from  Exodus 
(extending  it  to  two  thousand  generations),  the  ex- 
planation is  given  that  this  former  verse  refers  to  cases 
in  which  those  who  transfer  the  merit  serve  God  only 
through  motives  of  fear;  hence,  their  merit  is  not  so 
enduring  and  is  subject  to  limitations  in  time.^  The 
Zachuth,  thus  to  have  a  more  lasting  effect,  has  to  be  ac- 
quired by  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  in  the  service 
of  God,  which  is  that  accomplished  through  the  motive 
of  love.  But  even  of  more  importance  are  the  limita- 
tions made  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  to  profit  by 
these  merits.  We  are  referring  to  the  emphatic  state- 
ment of  Hillel,  who  said,  "If  I  am  not  for  myself, 
who  is  for  me,  and  being  for  myself,  what  am  I ?"  which 
is  explained  to  mean,  "I  must  work  out  my  own  sal- 

1  Mechilta,  68  b.     Cf.  also  mta  hpS  to  Deut.  7  9. 

2  T.  K.,  27  a.     Cf.  also   Yoi7ia,  87  a,  where  it  is  stated  that  both 
Zachuth  and  guilt  have  their  effect  until  the  end  of  all  generations. 

3  See  Sotah^  31  a.    See  Rashi's  commentary  as  to  the  meaning  of  fear 
and  love. 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  183 

vation,  yet  how  weak  are  my  unaided  efforts  !"  ^  This 
interpretation  is  supported  by  a  paraphrase  given  of 
it  in  an  older  source,  "If  I  have  not  acquired  merit  for 
myself,  who  will  acquire  merit  for  me,  making  me 
worthy  of  the  life  of  the  world  to  come?  I  have  no 
father,  I  have  no  mother,  I  have  no  brother"  (upon 
whose  merits  I  can  rely).^  A  similar  opinion  of  the  Rab- 
bis is  expressed  with  reference  to  Deut.  32  39,  "Fathers 
save  not  their  children:  Abraham  saved  not  Ishmael, 
Jacob  saved  not  Esau ;  brothers  save  not  brothers,  .  .  . 
Isaac  saved  not  Ishmael,  Jacob  saved  not  Esau.  All 
the  money  in  the  world  established  no  ransom,  as  it  is 
said,  'Surely  a  brother  redeemeth  not  a  man,  nor 
giveth  to  God  a  ransom  for  him"  (Ps.  49  8).^  Again, 
"Let  not  a  man  say,  my  father  was  a  pious  man, 
I  shall  be  saved  for  his  sake.  Abraham  could  not 
save  Ishmael,  nor  could  Jacob  save  Esau."  ^  Indeed, 
it  would  seem  as  if  this  were  a  generally  accepted 
axiom,  expressed  in  the  words,  "A  father  cannot  save 
the  son."  ^  In  the  face  of  such  statements,  some  of 
which  became  almost  proverbial,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  Zachuth  of  the  fathers  in  no  way  served 
to  silence  the  conscience  of  the  individual,  relieving  him 
from  responsibility  for  his  actions.    What  this  Zachuth 

1  Aboth,  I  15.     Cf.  Taylor  on  this  saying.     See  also  A.  R.  N.,  27  b^ 
note  58. 

2  A.  R.  N.,  27  b. 

^  See  Sifre^  139  b.    Cf.  Targtim  to  Ps.  49  8  and  10,  authorised  version. 
See  also  A.  R.  N.,  ibid.,  and  Sanhedrin,  104  a. 

4  M.   T.,  46  2.  5  Sanhedrin,  ibid. 


1 84     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

served  mostly  to  establish  was  the  consciousness  of 
the  historic  continuity,  and  to  increase  the  reverence 
for  the  past  which  has  thus  become  both  foundation 
and  inspiration.  But  this  very  idea  brought  Israel 
new  duties.  "We  are  thy  people,"  runs  an  old  prayer, 
"  the  children  of  thy  covenant,  the  children  of  Abraham, 
thy  friend  .  .  .  the  seed  of  Isaac  .  .  .  the  congregation 
of  Jacob,  thy  first-born  son.  .  .  .  Therefore  it  is 
our  duty  to  thank,  praise,  and  glorify  thee,  to  bless,  to 
sanctify,  and  to  offer  praise  and  thanksgiving  unto 
thy  name."  ^  And  it  is  in  the  end  the  grace  of  God 
himself  to  which  the  congregation  of  Israel  appeals. 
The  congregation  of  Israel  says  to  the  holy  one, 
blessed  be  he :  We  have  no  salvation  but  in  thee,  we 
hope  only  in  thee.^  Again,  when  Israel  comes  into 
distress,  they  say  unto  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he: 
Redeem  us!  but  God  says  unto  them:  Are  there 
among  you  righteous  and  God-fearing  men  (by  whose 
Zachuth  they  could  profit)?  They  answer:  In  the 
former  times  of  our  ancestors,  the  days  of  Moses, 
Joshua,  David,  Samuel,  and  Solomon,  we  had  (such 
righteous  men),  but  now,  the  longer  the  exile  lasts, 
the  darker  it  becomes.  Then  God  says,  "Trust  in  my 
Name,  and  my  Name  will  save  you."  ^  Again,  the 
congregation  of  Israel  said  before  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  "  It  is  not  for  the  sake  of  our  righteous- 
ness and  the  good  deeds  we   possess,  that   thou  wilt 

1  See  Singer,  p.  8;   Baer,  p.  45.  2  See  Af.  T.,  88  1. 

3  See  M.  7".,  31  1  and  references. 


THE   ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  185 

save  us,  but  whether  to-day  or  to-morrow,  deliver  us 
for  the  sake  of  thy  righteousness."  ^  And  indeed,  it 
was  for  his  Name's  sake  that  he  redeemed  them  from 
Egypt;  that  he  brought  them  to  the  Holy  Land  was 
also  for  his  Name's  sake,  not  for  the  sake  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob;  and  so  will  the  future  redemption 
from  Edom  be  effected  for  his  Name's  sake.^ 

Corresponding  to  the  ancestral  piety  is  the  ances- 
tral sin,  which  is  charged,  as  indicated  above,  to  the 
account  of  posterity  that  it  may  be  made  to  suffer 
for  it.  As  in  the  case  of  imputed  righteousness,  so 
they  had  also  for  the  belief  in  imputed  sin  Biblical 
authority  in  the  words  of  the  Decalogue,  "Visiting  the 
iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children  unto  the  third 
and  fourth  generation  of  them  that  hate  me"  (Exod. 
20  5).  But  it  did  not  escape  the  Rabbis  that  this  is 
in  contradiction  with  the  verse,  "The  fathers  shall 
not  be  put  to  death  for  the  children,  neither  shall  the 
children  be  put  to  death  for  the  fathers:  every  man 
shall  be  put  to  death  for  his  own  sin"  (Deut.  24  I6). 

1 M.  T.,  71 2. 

2  See  A/.  T.,  107 1.  This  is  in  contradiction  to  the  statement  made 
above,  p.  1 74,  that  it  was  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  which  was  effec- 
tive at  the  redemption  from  Egypt.  According  to  other  Rabbis  at 
every  redemption  both  in  the  past  and  in  the  future,  various  factors 
come  into  consideration,  among  them  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  and 
repentance.  See  also  M.  T.,  114  5,  and  references  given  there,  with 
regard  to  the  Zachuth  which  was  effective  on  the  occasion  of  that 
redemption.  Cf.  Jer.  Taanith,  63  </;  M.  T.^  106  9;  Deut.  R.,  2  23; 
P.  R.,  184  b.  The  last  adds,  "  It  is  repentance  which  causes  the  mercy 
of  God  and  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  (to  be  effective)." 


i86     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

They  tried  to  meet  this  difficulty  by  explaining  that 
children  are  made  to  suffer  for  the  sins  of  their  fathers 
only  when  they  perpetuate  the  wicked  deeds  of  their 
parents,  in  which  case  they  are  considered  as  identical 
with  their  parents,  for  whose  sins  they  are  thus  punished 
in  addition  to  their  own/  Rather  interesting  is  the 
way  in  which  one  of  the  Rabbis  puts  this  contradiction : 
*'When  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said  unto  Moses, 
that  he  was  visiting  the  sins  of  the  fathers  upon  the  chil- 
dren, Moses  answered, '  Master  of  the  world,  how  many 
wicked  people  have  begot  righteous  children  ?  Shall  they 
share  in  the  sins  of  their  parents?  Terah  worshipped 
images,  and  Abraham  his  son  was  righteous ;  Hezekiah 
was  righteous,  whilst  his  father  Ahaz  was  wicked.  .  .  . 
Is  it  proper  that  these  righteous  sons  should  be  pun- 
ished for  the  sins  of  their  fathers?'  Thereupon,  the 
Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said  unto  him,  *  Thou  hast  in- 
structed me  well.  By  thy  life,  I  shall  remove  my  words 
and  will  establish  thy  words,'  as  it  is  said,  'Fathers 
shall  not  be  put  to  death  for  their  children,'  etc.  (Deut. 
24  16).     'By  thy  life,  I  will  ascribe  (these  words)  to 

1  See  Onkelos  and  Pseudo-Jonathan  to  the  verse  in  Exodus.  San- 
hedrin,  2.1  b.  Cf.  also  Mechilta,  ']%b  and  114  a,  and  P.  K.,  167  (5,  as 
well  as  T.  K.,  112  b,  with  reference  to  Lev.  26  39.  Nachmanides  in  his 
commentary  to  this  passage  in  Exodus  explains  this  contradiction  that 
the  visiting  of  the  sins  of  the  fathers  takes  place  only  in  the  case  of 
idolatry,  whilst  in  other  sins  the  suffering  or  the  punishment  is  confined 
to  the  individual  who  committed  the  crime.  However,  he  gives  no 
Rabbinical  authority  for  this  opinion.  Perhaps  he  was  thinking  of 
Mechilta  68  a,  which  explains  that  it  is  only  in  the  case  of  idolatry  that 
he  is  an  K3p  ^K,  whilst  in  the  case  of  other  sins  he  is  jlOm  Dim- 


THE   ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  187 

thy  name,'  as  it  is  said,  '  But  the  children  of  the  murder- 
ers he  slew  not :  according  unto  that  which  is  written 
in  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses,  wherein  the  Lord 
commanded,  saying,  "The  fathers  shall  not  be  put  to 
death  for  the  children,'""  etc.  (2  Kings  14  6).^  The 
same  contradiction  the  Rabbis  also  saw  between  Exodus 
20  5  and  Ezekiel  18  20,  "The  soul  that  sinneth,  it 
shall  die.  The  son  shall  not  bear  the  iniquity  of  the 
father,  neither  shall  the  father  bear  the  iniquity  of  the 
son:  the  righteousness  of  the  righteous  shall  be  upon 
him,  and  the  wickedness  of  the  wicked  shall  be  upon 
him,"  and  tried  to  reconcile  it  in  the  following  way :  That 
in  the  case  of  a  man  who  is  righteous,  his  wicked  pos- 
terity is  not  liable  to  suffer  for  their  own  sins  so  quicldy, 
the  punishment  being  suspended  for  a  time  by  the 
merits  of  their  fathers;  but  in  the  case  that  a  man  is 
wicked,  the  visiting  of  his  sins  upon  his  wicked  posterity 
will  hasten  the  judgement  of  God,  so  that  his  children 
will  at  once  be  punished  for  their  own  evil  deeds.  In 
no  case,  however,  will  they  suffer  for  the  sins  of  their 
fathers.^  Other  Rabbis,  however,  saw  in  this  contradic- 
tion a  direct  prophetic  improvement  upon  the  words  of 
the  Torah.  "Moses  said,  'God  visits  the  sins  of  the 
fathers  upon  the  children,'  but  there  came  Ezekiel  and  re- 
moved it  and  said, '  The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die.' "  ^ 

1  See  Num.  R.,  19  33.  2  ggg  Mechilta  of  R.  Simon,  p.  106. 

3  Makkoth,  24  a.  Cf.  also  Ag.  Ber.,  ch.  10,  where  it  would  seem 
that  there  was  a  certain  point  in  history  when  neither  ancestral  right- 
eousness nor  ancestral  wickedness  were  of  any  consequence  to  the 
children. 


i88     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

The  prophetic  view  is  the  one  generally  accepted  by 
the  Rabbis.^  As  an  exception  we  may  perhaps  con- 
sider the  sin  of  Adam,  causing  death  and  decay  to 
mankind  of  all  generations.^  When  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  created  Adam,  the  first,  he  took  him 
around  all  the  trees  of  the  Paradise  and  he  said  to 
him:  *'  See  my  works,  how  beautiful  and  excellent  they 
are.  All  that  I  have  created  I  have  created  for  thy 
sake.  Take  heed  that  thou  sinnest  not  and  destroy  my 
world.  For  if  thou  hast  sinned,  there  is  none  who  can 
repair  it.  And  not  only  this,  but  thou  wilt  also  cause 
death  to  that  righteous  man  (Moses).  ..."  It  is  to 
be  compared  to  a  woman  with  child  who  was  in  prison. 
There  she  gave  birth  to  a  son,  whom  she  brought  up 
within  the  prison  walls  before  she  died.  Once  the  King 
passed  before  the  door,  and  the  son  began  crying: 
"  My  master,  the  King !     Here  was  I  born,  here  was 

1  See  D'^TDH  1BD,  Parma,  pp.  32  and  39,  for  some  interesting 
remarks  and  fine  distinctions  on  this  point.  See  also  Schechter, 
Studies  in  Judaism,  p.  266  seq. 

2  See  Eccles.  R.,  7  13,  but  see  also  Gen.  R.,  14  6.  Cf.  T.  K.,  27  a. 
Cf.  Nu7n.  R.,  9  49.  Cf.  Pugio  Fidei,  p.  675  (865),  who  seems,  however, 
to  have  tampered  with  the  text.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
belief  in  the  disastrous  effects  of  the  sin  of  Adam  on  posterity  was 
not  entirely  absent  in  Judaism,  though  this  belief  did  not  hold  such 
a  prominent  place  in  the  Synagogue  as  in  the  Christian  Church.  It  is 
also  thought  that  in  the  overwhelming  majority  of  mankind  there  is 
enough  sin  in  each  individual  case  to  bring  about  death  without  the  sin 
of  Adam.  See  Tan.  B.,  i  11  a,  and  Shabbath  52  a  and  b.  The  doctrine 
was  resumed  and  developed  with  great  consistency  by  the  Cabalists  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  Cf.  also  Ginzberg,  Die  Haggada  bei  den  Kirchen- 
vdtern,  p.  46. 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  189 

I  brought  up;  for  which  crime  am  I  placed  here?" 
The  King  answered,  ''  For  the  crime  of  your  mother." 
Likewise  there  are  certain  national  sins,  as,  for  instance, 
the  sin  of  the  golden  calf,  in  the  expiation  of  which 
each  generation  contributes  its  small  share,  at  least  in 
the  coin  of  suffering.^ 

(2)  The  Zachuth  of  a  Pious  Contemporary  (and 
Contemporary  Sin).  The  most  important  passage  to 
be  considered  in  this  connection  is  that  relating  to  the 
scale  of  merit  and  the  scale  of  guilt.  Believing  fully  in 
the  justice  of  God,  the  Rabbis  could  not  but  assume 
that  the  actions  of  man  form  an  important  factor  in 
the  scheme  of  his  salvation,  whether  for  good  or  for 
evil.  Hence  the  statement  that  man  is  judged  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  majority  of  his  deeds,  and  the  world 
in  general,  in  accordance  with  the  number  of  the  right- 
eous or  wicked  men  it  contains.^  In  accordance  with 
this  is  the  notion  of  the  scale  of  merit  (or  Zachuth) 
and  the  scale  of  guilt.  Assuming  a  man  to  be  neither 
particularly  righteous  nor  particularly  wicked,  and  the 
world  in  general  to  consist  of  an  equal  number  of  right- 
ous  and  wicked  men,  the  fate  of  the  world  may  be 
determined  by  a  single  action  added  to  the  scale  which 
outbalances  the  other,  and  so  may  the  fate  of  the  whole 
world  depend  on  it.  "He  performed  one  command- 
ment, and  bliss  is  unto  him,  for  he  may  by  this  have 
inclined  the  scales  (!?^^!3n)  both  with  regard  to  himself 

1  See/er.  Taanith,  68  c,  and  Sanhedrin,  102  a. 

2  See  Tosephta  Kiddushin,  336.    Kiddushin,  40  b,  and  Eccles.  R.,  10  1. 


ipo     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

and  with  regard  to  the  whole  world  to  the  side  of  Zachuth. 
He  committed  one  sin,  woe  is  unto  him,  for  he  may  by 
this  have  inclined  the  scales  both  with  regard  to  himself 
and  with  regard  to  the  whole  world  to  the  side  of  guilt."  * 
The  protective  power  of  the  Zachuth  of  the  pious 
contemporary  not  only  turns  the  scales  to  the  side 
of  Zachuth  but  "  even  maintains  the  world  that  was 
created  by  Ten  Sayings."  ^  The  authority  for  such  a 
belief  is  given  in  the  well-known  dialogue  between  God 
and  Abraham  regarding  the  absence  of  the  righteous 
men  in  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (Gen.  1824  seq,).  And 
it  is  with  reference  to  this  dialogue  that  we  are  told 
that  Abraham  received  the  good  message  that  the  world 
will  never  be  lacking  in  a  certain  number  of  righteous 
men  even  like  himself,  for  whose  sake  the  world  will 
endure.^  This  number  is  differently  given  in  the  vari- 
ous sources,  ranking  between  fifty  and  one.  ''  Even  for 
the  sake  of  one  righteous  man  the  world  is  maintained, 
as  it  is  said,  '  the  righteous  is  the  foundation  of  the 
world  '  "  (Prov.  10  25).  Indeed,  every  day  a  daughter- 
voice  comes  from  Mount  Horeb,  that  says,  ''  The  whole 
world  is  fed  for  the  sake  of  my  son  Chaninah,  but  he 
himself  lives  the  whole  week  on  a  Kah  of  carobs."  ^ 

1  See  Kiddushin,  40  b,  and  references.  2  gee  Aboth,  5  1. 

3  See  Gen.  R.,  49  3.  The  number  given  there  is  thirty.  Chullin, 
92  a,  speaks  of  forty-five.  P.  R.  E. ,  ch.  25,  has  fifty.  Cf.  P.  K.,  88  a,  and 
MHG.,  278.     The  statement  given  in  the  text  is  from  Yoftia,  38  b. 

*  Berachoth,  17  b.  See  also  Tan.  B.,^25  a.  For  the  contemporary 
Zachuth  on  a  more  limited  scale,  see  among  others,  Taanith,  20  b  and 
21  b  \   Baba  Mezia,  85  a  ;    Sajihedrin,  114  a  ;   and  Chullin,  86  a. 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF   THE  FATHERS  191 

As  to  the  effect  of  contemporary  sin  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out  that  a  difference  is  to  be  made 
between  the  punishment  to  be  decreed  by  the  worldly 
court  and  that  inflicted  by  heaven.  The  court  in 
Rabbinic  notion  is  strictly  confined  in  its  dealings 
to  the  sinner  himself.  In  the  case  of  Achan,  it  is 
even  declared  against  the  literal  sense  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, that  his  children  did  not  really  suffer.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbis,  they  were  only  made  to  be  present 
at  the  execution  of  their  father,  in  order  to  come  under 
the  deterring  effect  of  the  whole  procedure.^  The  judge- 
ment of  heaven,  however,  makes  the  community  respon- 
sible for  the  sins  of  the  individual.  They  indeed  fall 
heavily  into  the  scale,  but  not  on  the  ground  of  imputa- 
tion, but  by  reason  of  solidarity,  which  was  very  strongly 
felt  in  the  ancient  Jewish  community.  '' Israel,"  an  an- 
cient Rabbi  expressed  himself,  "is  like  one  body  and  one 
soul.  ...  If  one  of  them  sinned,  they  are  all  of  them 
punished."  ^  The  great  principle  was,  all  Israel  are 
surety  one  for  another.^  "You  are  all  surety  for  each 
other.  If  there  is  one  righteous  man  among  you,  you  will 
all  be  sustained  by  his  merit,  and  not  only  you  alone,  but 
also  the  whole  world ;  and  when  one  sins,  the  whole  gen- 
eration will  be  punished."  *    This  responsibility  affects 

1  See  Joshua  7  24  and  25.  Cf.  Targum  and  commentaries  to  these 
verses,  and  Sanhedrin,  44  a.  Against  this  is  to  be  noticed  P.  R.  E.,  38, 
text  and  commentaries. 

2  See  Mechilta  of  R.  Simon,  p.  95.  Cf.  Lev.  R.,  4  6.  See  also  Lewy, 
Ein  Wort  uber  die  Mechilta  des  R.  Simon,  p.  25. 

^  See  Sanhedrin,  27  b  and  references. 
*  Tan.  B.,  5  25  a  and  references. 


192     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

the  community  differently  with  different  sins.  In  the 
case  of  a  false  oath,  not  only  the  transgressor  suffers, 
but  also  his  family  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  world 
are  visited  by  the  divine  judgement.  In  lighter  sins, 
the  community  is  only  made  responsible  in  the  case 
when  they  could  have  protested  against  the  crime  to  be 
committed,  but  failed  to  do  so.^  The  family  of  the 
criminal  suffers,  of  course,  in  a  higher  degree  than 
strangers.^  It  would  seem,  further,  that,  as  far  at 
least  as  the  judgement  of  heaven  was  concerned,  there 
was  a  tendency  to  consider  the  relatives  of  a  criminal 
as  a  sort  of  accessories  to  the  crime.  Thus  the  ques- 
tion is  put  with  reference  to  Lev.  20  5,  "If  he  sinned, 
what  crime  did  his  family  commit  ?  "  The  answer  given 
is,  "There  is  no  family  counting  among  its  members 
a  publican  in  which  they  are  not  all  publicans.  There 
is  no  family  counting  among  its  members  a  highwayman 
in  which  they  are  not  all  highwaymen."  ^  Little 
children  seem  to  form  almost  a  part  of  their  fathers' 
selves  and  suffer  on  that  account  for  the  sins  of  their 
parents.  They  are  not  included  in  the  classes  of  chil- 
dren exempt  by  the  law  of  Lev.  24  16.^     The  elders 

1  See  Shebuothf  39  a.     2  See  Shebuothy  39  b.     See,  however,  next  note. 

3  See  T.  K.,  91  c,  Pseudo-Jonathan  to  the  verse  in  Leviticus,  and 
Shebuoth,  ibid.  The  comment  of  the  Gemara  seems  to  labour  under 
the  difficulty  of  reconciling  various  Rabbinic  sayings.  More  probable 
it  is  that  this  heavy  responsibility  of  the  family  refers  on  the  whole  to 
the  sins  of  a  very  serious  nature,  such  as  a  false  oath,  the  worshipping 
of  Moloch,  etc. 

*  See  Sifre,  124  a,  and  cf.  below,  p.  175,  where  the  reason  is  given 
that  they  stand  surety  for  their  parents.     From  a  Midrash  quoted  in 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  193 

and  leaders,  again,  of  the  community  are  burdened 
with  a  special  responsibility,  as  it  is  assumed  that  their 
protest  may,  by  reason  of  their  authority,  prevent  crime.^ 
The  Scriptural  words,  "Cursed  be  he  that  con- 
firmeth  not  all  the  words  of  this  law  to  do  them" 
(Deut.  27  26),  are  interpreted  to  refer  to  the  worldl) 
tribunal  which  fails  in  its  duty  to  enforce  the  law  and 
to  protest  against  crime.^  Again,  with  reference  to 
Prov.  6  1,  the  Rabbis  remarked:  This  verse  refers 
to  the  student.  As  long  as  one  is  a  mere  student,  he 
is  not  concerned  in  the  community  and  will  not  be 
punished  for  the  sin  of  the  latter.  But  when  he  is 
appointed  at  its  head  and  has  put  on  the  gown  (a  special 
dress  which  the  Rabbi  used  to  wear  in  his  judicial 
capacity)  ...  the  whole  burden  of  the  public  is  upon 
him.  If  he  sees  a  man  using  violence  against  his 
neighbour  or  committing  an  immoral  action  and  does 
not  protest,  he  will  surely  be  punished.^  Indeed,  he  who 
has  the  power  of  protesting  and  does  not  protest,  he 
who  has  the  power  to  bring  Israel  back  to  the  good  and 
does  not  bring  them  back,  is  responsible  for  all  the 
bloodshed  in  Israel,  as  though  he  would  have  com- 

MHG.,  4  6,  MS.,  it  would  still  seem  that  the  loss  of  children  is  only 
another  kind  of  punishment  of  the  father.     H^K  D'3l2pn  Thir\  b^X 

|nn  no-TiDt:^  ^dsx:  nsbn  mnp.i  in^sxb  kSk  rbiii.  See  also  Mid- 
rash  Zuta,  47,  that  this  death  or  suffering  of  children  for  the  sin  of 
their  fathers  is  only  up  to  the  age  of  13.  After  this  age  it  is  for  the 
child's  own  sin.     Cf.  also  Low's  Lebensalter,  p.  411. 

1  See  Shabbath,  55  a.     Cf.  Tan.  B.,  3  21  rt;  and  references  there. 

2  See/<?r.  Sotah,  i\  d.  3  Exod.  R.,  27  9. 

o 


194     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

mitted  the  murder  himself.  For,  as  already  stated, 
all  Israel  are  surety  one  for  another.  They  are  to  be 
compared  to  a  company  sailing  in  a  ship,  of  whom  one 
took  a  drill  and  began  to  bore  a  hole  under  his  seat. 
When  his  friends  protested,  he  said,  '^What  does  this 
concern  you?  Is  not  this  the  place  assigned  to  me?" 
They  answered  him,  "  But  will  not  the  water  come  up 
through  this  hole  and  flood  the  whole  vessel?"  Like- 
wise the  sin  of  one  endangers  the  whole  community.^ 

The  community,  however,  according  to  the  majority 
of  the  Rabbis,  is  not  responsible  for  the  sins  committed 
in  secret.  ''When  Israel  stood  on  Mount  Sinai  they 
all  made  up  one  heart  to  receive  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
in  joy,  and  not  only  this,  they  pledged  themselves  one 
for  the  other.  When  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
revealed  himself  to  make  a  covenant  with  them  which 
should  also  include  the  secret  things,  they  said,  'We 
will  make  a  covenant  with  thee  for  the  things  seen,  but 
not  for  the  things  secret,  lest  one  among  us  commit  a 
sin  in  secret  and  the  whole  community  be  made  re- 
sponsible.'" ^  This  condition  of  Israel  was  accepted 
by  God.  "Things  hidden  are  revealed  to  the  Lord, 
our  God,  and  he  will  punish  for  them,  but  things  seen 
are  given  over  to  us  and  to  our  children  forever,  to  do 

1  See  S.  E.,  p.  56.     Cf.  also  Lev.  R.,  4  6. 

2  Mechilta,  66  b.  The  reading  there  is  not  quite  certain.  Cf.  com- 
mentary. In  the  text  the  reading  of  the  Yalkut  was  partly  followed. 
For  opposite  views,  see  Friedmann,  Introduction  to  S.  E.,  p.  73,  and 
references  given  there  to  Sanhedrin,  43  b. 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF   THE  FATHERS  195 

judgement  concerning  them."  ^  Quite  isolated  seems  to 
be  the  opinion  according  to  which  this  exemption  from 
mutual  responsibility  extended  after  the  Revelation 
on  Mount  Sinai  also  to  things  seen.  It  is  expressed 
in  the  following  way:  From  the  moment  that  God 
gave  the  Torah,  it  is  only  he  who  sins  that  will  be 
punished,  though  before  that  the  whole  generation  was 
responsible  for  the  sin  of  the  individual.  Thus  there 
were  many  righteous  men  swept  away  with  the  deluge 
in  the  times  of  Noah.^  On  the  other  hand,  we  have 
also  the  view  that  this  responsibility  extended  also 
to  things  secret  with  the  moment  all  Israel  passed 
the  Jordan  (and  established  there  a  proper  common- 
wealth).^ It  was  only  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Second  Temple,  when  the  Sanhedrin  gathered  in  Jab- 
neh,  that  they  were  relieved  from  this  responsibility,  a 
voice  from  heaven  proclaiming,  "You  need  not  busy 
yourselves  with  things  hidden;"*  that  is  to  say,  that 
with  the  loss  of  Israel's  political  independence,  and 
proper  jurisdiction  of  the  community  over  all  its  mem- 
bers connected  with  it,  the  solidarity  was  also,  partially 
at  least,  relaxed. 

(3)  The  Zachuth  of  a  Pious  Posterity,  or  the  sin  of 
a  wicked  posterity  which  has  a  retroactive  influence 
upon  their  progenitors.      With  regard  to  sin  there  is 

1  See  Pseudo-Jonathan  to  Deut.  29  6.  2  Tan. ,  HK"!,  3. 

^  See  Sanhedrin,  43  b.   The  reading  is  uncertain.    See  commentaries. 
Cf.  also  Sifre,  18  a  ;   A.  R.  N.,  50  a  and  b,  and  references. 
^/er,  Sotah,  22  a, 


196     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

only  a  faint  trace  of  such  a  belief  left  in  the  earlier 
Rabbinic  literature.  It  is  with  reference  to  Deut. 
21  8,  where  the  statement  is  made  that  even  the 
dead  are  in  need  of  an  atonement,  but  the  context 
shows  that  such  an  atonement  is  only  needed  in  case 
of  murder,  which  is  supposed  to  have  a  damaging 
effect  upon  the  ancestors  of  the  murderer.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  this  notion  was  suggested  by  Ezekiel 
18  10,  ''  And  if  he  begat  a  son  that  is  a  robber  or  a 
shedder  of  blood."  The  murderer  is  thus  born  already 
with  the  taint  of  his  subsequent  sin.  But,  if  the  ances- 
tor can  be  affected  by  a  sin  not  committed  by  himself, 
it  is  only  reasonable  that  he  should  secure  pardon 
by  an  atoning  action  accomplished  by  posterity.^ 
More  ample  are  the  references  to  the  Zachuth  of  a 
pious  posterity.  Thus  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
acts  Idndly  with  the  first  (fathers)  for  the  sake  of 
the  Zachuth  of  the  latter  ones  (descendants),  as  was 
the  case  with  Noah,  who  was  saved  for  the  sake  of 
his  children.^  Abraham,  again,  became  worthy  of 
taking  possession  of  the  land  for  the  sake  of  the 
Zachuth  attaching  to  the  commandment  of  bringing 
the  first  sheaf  of  their  harvest,  which  Israel  will  ac- 
complish.^ There  was  even  a  saying  that  a  son  can 
make  his  father  acquire  a  merit,*  "for  so  they  said, 

1  See  Si/re,  112  b  (§  no),  text  and  commentary,  especially  note  6. 
The  text  is  not  quite  certain.  The  Halachic  point  of  view  of  this 
question  is  fully  treated  by  Azulai,  5^DV  117^,  p.  54  seq. 

2  Gen.  R.,  29  5.  ^  gee  P.  K.,']ia;  Lev.  R.,  28  6. 
*  See  Sanhedrin,  104  a. 


THE  ZACHUTH  OF  THE  FATHERS  197 

Children  save  their  parents  from  the  judgement  of 
Gehenna."  And  so  Solomon  said,  "Correct  thy  son 
and  he  shall  give  thee  rest;  yea,  he  shall  give  delight 
unto  thy  soul"  (Prov.  29  17);  that  is,  he  will  deliver 
thee  from  the  judgement  in  the  Gehenna,  and  will 
delight  thy  soul  in  Paradise  with  the  righteous.* 

This  rehef  coming  from  the  children  is,  according  to 
the  source  of  the  statement  just  given,  only  for  four 
generations,  God  suspending  the  judgement  of  the 
ancestors  till  their  great-grandchildren  are  grown 
up,  by  whose  righteousness  they  might  be  reheved. 
''  And  so  Samuel  said  to  Israel,  '  But  if  ye  will  not 
obey  the  voice  of  the  Lord,  but  rebel  against  the 
commandment  of  the  Lord,  then  shall  the  hand  of 
the  Lord  be  against  you  and  against  your  fathers' 
(i  Samuel  12  15).  Be  therefore  careful  that  you  do 
not  provoke  the  wrath  of  God  and  receive  punishment, 
so  that  even  your  fathers,  whose  sins  were  in  suspense, 
who  were  hoping  for  your  redeeming  merits  will  now 
be  judged  according  to  their  deeds."  ^     The  rehef  by 

1  MHG.,  Num.  Ms.,  81  a. 

2  MHG.,  ibid.  He  derives  this  doctrine  from  Exod.  20  5,  taking  the 
word  "tpa  in  the  sense  of  depositing  or  entrusting.  See  Mechilta  of 
R,  Simon,  p.  106,  text  and  notes,  and  cf.  P.K.,  167  a.  This  interpre- 
tation is  preceded  by  a  long  argument  ascribed  to  Tannaitic  authorities 
in  favour  of  this  doctrine.  Cf.  Reshith  Chochmah,  Section  D^jn  bllJ, 
ed.  Cracow,  pp.  332  b,  334  b,  and  375  a  and  b,  where  the  contents 
of  these  extracts  from  MHG.  are  to  be  found,  but  in  a  rather  corrupt 
text.  Some  reminiscence  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  Eccles.  R.,\\.  See 
also  D^bUB  nn,  by  R.  Abraham  of  Wilna,  p.  34  b,  and  D'tSipbn  ISD  by 
Griinhut,  3  a,  seg.  Cf.  also  D^l'DH  1SD,  Parma,  pp.  76  and  261.  See 
also  Rashi  and  Kimchi  to  Samuel  12  15. 


198     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

the  posterity  is  extended  from  children  to  the  general 
pubhc,  and  a  principle  is  laid  down  that  the  Hving  re- 
deem the  dead/  and  indeed  we  find  cases  in  Rabbinical 
literature  where  prayers  were  offered  for  the  benefit  of 
the  dead.^  It  does  not  seem,  however,  that  the  doctrine 
took  root  in  Jewish  conscience.  The  whole  of  the 
original  liturgy  has  not  a  single  reference  to  the  dead, 
nor  is  there  during  the  first  ten  centuries  of  our  era  to 
be  found  a  single  fixed  prayer  for  the  benefit  of  those 
departed.  The  first  time  we  meet  with  the  practical 
question  of  the  use  of  offering  alms  or  prayers  for  the 
dead  is  in  the  Responsa  of  a  certain  Gaon  in  the 
eleventh  century,  who  was  asked  whether  the  offerings 
made  for  the  dead  can  be  of  any  advantage  to  them. 
He  seems  to  have  been  quite  astonished  by  this  ques- 
tion, and  confesses  his  ignorance  of  such  a  custom.^ 

1  See  Tanchuma,  WKH,  I;    Tan.  B.,  Introduction,  90  a. 

2  See  Gen.  R.,  98  2,  and  reference  given  there;  Chagigak,  15  3; 
Sotah,  10  b;  Makkoih,  II  b.  Cf.  also  Friedmann's  DTISD:,  p.  23  seq.; 
2  Maccabees,  13  43  seq. 

3  See  T  bu  y'2'p  of  the  Mekize  Nirdamim,  Berlin,  1886,  pp.  16  and 
17,  and  cf.  Hechaluz,  13  93.  Cf.  also  tTSSH  jVJn  by  R.  Abraham  b. 
Chiya,  p.  58  seq,^  and  32  a. 


XIII 

THE   LAW   OF   HOLINESS  AND   THE 
LAW   OF    GOODNESS 

Holiness  is  the  highest  achievement  of  the  Law 
and  the  deepest  experience  as  well  as  realisation  of 
righteousness.  It  is  a  composite  of  various  aspects  not 
easily  definable,  and  at  times  even  seemingly  contra- 
dictory. But  diverging  as  the  ideals  of  holiness  may 
be  in  their  application  to  practical  life,  they  all  originate 
in  the  conception  of  the  kingdom,  the  central  idea  of 
Rabbinic  theology,  and  in  Israel's  consciousness  of 
its  close  relation  to  his  God,  the  King.^  In  its  broad 
features  holiness  is  but  another  word  for  Imitatio  Dei, 
a  duty  intimately  associated  v/ith  Israel's  close  contact 
with  God.  The  most  frequent  name  for  God  in  the 
Rabbinic  hterature  is  "  the  Holy  One,"  occasionally  also 
"  Holiness,"  ^  and  so  Israel  is  called  holy.^  But 
the  holiness  of  Israel  is  dependent  on  their  acting  in 
such  a  way  as   to  become   God-like.^     "Ye  shall  be 

1  See  above,  p.  65  seq. 

2  See  Blau,  Zur  Einleitung,  p.   13;    Bacher,  Terminologie,  i  169. 
See  also  Friedmann.     Introduction  to  DTlSDD,  p.  20. 

3  See   Tan.  B.,  3  37  6;  P.K.  in  a;   S.E.  133.     Cf.  also  Shabbath, 
86  a,  and  references  given  there. 

*  See  Num.  ^.,94  and  17  6, 

199 


200     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

holy,  for  I  the  Lord  am  holy"  (Lev.  192).  These 
words  are  explained  by  the  ancient  Rabbinic  sage 
Abba  Saul  to  mean  ''Israel  is  the  familia  (suite  or 
bodyguard)  of  the  King  (God),  whence  it  is  incumbent 
upon  them  to  imitate  the  King."  ^  The  same  thought 
is  expressed  in  different  words  by  another  Rabbi,  who 
thus  paraphrases  the  verse  from  Leviticus  which  has 
just  been  cited.  "Ye  shall  be  holy,  and  why?  because 
I  am  holy,  for  I  have  attached  you  unto  me,  as  it  is 
said,  'For  as  the  girdle  cleaves  to  the  loins  of  a  man, 
so  I  have  caused  to  cleave  unto  me  the  whole  house  of 
Israel'"  (Jer.  13  11).^  Another  Rabbi  remarked,  "God 
said  to  Israel,  Even  before  I  created  the  world  you 
were  sanctified  unto  me;  be  ye  therefore  holy  as  I  am 
holy;"  and  he  proceeds  to  say,  "The  matter  is  to  be 
compared  to  a  king  who  sanctified  (by  wedlock)  a 
woman  unto  him,  and  said  to  her:  Since  thou  art  my 
wife,  what  is  my  glory  is  thy  glory,  be  therefore  holy 
even  as  I  am  holy."  ^  In  other  words,  Israel  having 
the  same  relation  to  God  as  the  familia  to  the  king, 
or  as  the  wife  to  the  husband,  or  as  children  to  the 
father,^  it  follows  that  they  should  take  him  as  their 
model,  imitating  him  in  holiness. 

Before  proceeding  to  some  analysis  of  this  Imitatio 
Deij  or  holiness,  as  suggested  by  the  Rabbinic  literature, 

1  T.J^.,  86  c.     Cf.  Bacher,  Ag:  Tan.,  2  367,  and  Lewy,  Ueder  einige 
Fragmente  aus  der  Mischna  des  Abba  Saul,  p.  23. 

2  Tan.  B.,  3  37  6.     Cf.  also  P.K.,  16  a. 

8  Tan.  B.,  3  37  a.  *  See  Lev.  R.,  24  4. 


LAW  OF  HOLINESS  AND   LAW  OF  GOODNESS     201 

it  must  be  remarked  that  the  Hebrew  term  Kedushah 
does  not  quite  cover  our  term  holiness,  the  mystical 
and  higher  aspect  of  it  being  better  represented  by  the 
Hebrew  term  Chasiduth  (sainthness),  for  which  Ke- 
dushah is  only  one  of  the  preparatory  virtues ;  ^  though 
the  two  ideas  are  so  naturally  allied  that  they  are  not 
always  separated  in  Rabbinical  texts.  I  shall,  never- 
theless, in  the  following  pages  classify  my  remarks 
under  the  two  headings  of  Kedushah  and  Chasiduth. 
The  former  moves  more  within  the  limits  of  the  Law, 
though  occasionally  exceeding  it,  whilst  the  latter,  aspir- 
ing to  a  superior  kind  of  holiness,  not  only  supplements 
the  Law,  but  also  proves  a  certain  corrective  to  it. 

As  we  have  seen,  holiness,  according  to  Abba  Saul, 
is  identical  with  Imitation  of  God.  The  nature  of  this 
imitation  is  defined  by  him  thus:  "/  and  he,  that  is 
like  unto  him  (God).  As  he  is  merciful  and  gracious, 
so  be  thou  (man)  merciful  and  gracious."  ^  The 
Scriptural  phrases  ''walking  in  the  ways  of  God" 
(Deut.  II  22),  and  "being  called  by  the  name  of  God" 
(Joel  35),  are  again  explained  to  mean,  "As  God  is 
called  merciful  and  gracious,  so  be  thou  merciful  and 

^  See  T.  B.  Abodah  Zarah,  20  b,  and  Rabbinowicz,  Variae  Lee- 
Hones  to  the  passages.  All  the  parables,  however  (given  by  Bacher 
in  his  Ag.  Tan.  2,  p.  496,  note  5,  to  vi^hich  Midrash  Prov.,  15,  is  also 
to  be  added),  have  mTDH  close  to  p"m"l 

2  Mechilta,  37  a,  and  Shabbath  133  b  and  parallels.  The  inter- 
pretation of  Abba  Saul  is  based  on  the  word  imSXI  in  Exod.  15  2, 
which  he  divides  into  im  "'iK,  meaning,  "I  (man)  and  he  (God)." 
See  also  above,  pp.  90  and  119. 


202      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

gracious;  as  God  is  called  righteous,  so  be  thou  right- 
eous; as  God  is  called  holy,  so  be  thou  holy."  ^  Again, 
as  the  way  of  heaven  is  that  he  is  ever  merciful 
against  the  wicked  and  accept  their  repentance,  so  be  ye 
merciful  against  each  other.  As  he  bestows  gifts  on 
those  who  know  him  and  those  who  know  him  not  and 
deserve  not  his  gifts,  so  bestow  ye  gifts  upon  each  other.^ 
"The  profession  of  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  is 
charity  and  loving-kindness,  and  Abraham,  who  will 
command  his  children  and  his  household  after  him 
'that  they  shall  keep  the  way  of  the  Lord'  (Gen.  i8  19), 
is  told  by  God:  'Thou  hast  chosen  my  profession; 
wherefore  thou  shalt  also  become  Hke  unto  me,  an  an- 
cient of  days.'"  ^  The  imitation  receives  practical 
shape  in  the  following  passage:  "The  members  of  the 
house  of  Israel  are  in  duty  bound  to  deal  with  one 
another  mercifully,  to  do  charity  (Mizwah),  and  to 
practise  kindness.  For  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  He, 
has  only  created  this  world  with  loving-kindness  and 
mercy,  and  it  rests  with  us  to  learn  from  the  ways  of 
God."  Thus  said  Rabbi  Chama  b.  Chaninah,  ".  .  . 
Walk  in  the  attributes  of  God  (or  rather  make  his 
attributes  the  rule  for  thy  conduct).  As  he  clothes 
the  naked  (Gen.  321),  so  do  thou  clothe  the  naked; 
as  he  nurses  the  sick  (Gen.  18  1),  so  do  thou  nurse  the 
sick;  as  he  comforts  the  mourners  (Gen.  25  11),  so 
do  thou  comfort  the  mourners;    as  he  buries  the  dead 

1  Si/r^,  85  a.     It  seems  that  the  Rabbis  read  in  Joel  ^'^p\ 

2  S.E.,  p.  135.     Cf.  Mechilta,  59  a.  ^  See  Gen.  R.,  58,  9. 


LAW  OF  HOLINESS  AND   LAW  OF  GOODNESS      203 

(Deut.  34  5),  SO  do  thou  bury  the  dead."  ^  Again, 
when  R.  Judah  b.  Ilai  interrupted  his  lectures  in  order 
to  join  the  bridal  procession,  he  would  address  his 
disciples  with  the  words,  "  My  children !  rise  and  show 
your  respect  to  the  bride  (by  joining  the  procession), 
for  so  we  find  that  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  acted 
as  best  man  to  Eve."  ^  Indeed,  it  is  maintained  that 
God  himself  observes  the  commandments,  acting  in 
this  respect  as  an  example  to  his  children.^  The  im- 
itation is  further  extended  to  mere  good  manners,  in 
which  God  is  also  taken  as  a  model.  Thus,  for 
instance,  we  are  told  by  the  Rabbis :  Let  man  learn 
proper  behaviour  from  the  Omnipresent,  who,  though 
knowing  the  absence  of  righteous  men  from  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah,  did  not  interrupt  Abraham  in  his  in- 
tercession for  these  cities,  but  waited  until  he  finished  his 
pleading  and  even  took  leave  before  parting  with  him.* 
It  is  to  be  remarked  that  this  God-likeness  is  con- 

1  Sotah,  14  a.  The  beginning  of  the  passage  is  taken  from 
the  rT'lt'Kin  'B  mnb''Kt£^.  According  to  the  Agadic  explanations 
Abraham  was  in  an  invalid  state  when  God  appeared  to  him  in  the 
plains  of  Mamre.  The  blessing,  again,  spoken  of  in  Gen.  25  11,  which 
took  place  after  the  death  of  Abraham,  was  meant  as  a  message  of 
condolence. 

2  See  A.  R.  N.,  10  a.  The  words,  "  And  he  brought  unto  the  man  " 
(Gen.  2  23),  are  understood  by  the  Rabbis  that  God  took  particular  care 
to  present  Eve  to  Adam  in  the  adorned  state  of  a  bride.  See  Gen.  ^., 
181. 

^  Seey<»r.  Bikkuri?n,  66  c,  and  Lev.  R.,  35  3. 

*  See  D.  E.,  ch.  5.  I  supplemented  the  passage  with  the  parallel 
in  A.  R.  N.,  56 a.  Cf.  also  Gen.  R.,%%',  Tan.  B.,  i  28  6 ;  and  Sukkah, 
SO  a. 


204     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

fined  to  his  manifestations  of  mercy  and  righteousness, 
the  Rabbis  rarely  desiring  the  Jew  to  take  God  as  a 
model  in  his  attributes  of  severity  and  rigid  justice, 
though  the  Bible  could  have  furnished  them  v^ith 
many  instances  of  this  latter  kind.  Interesting  in  this 
connection  is  the  v^ay  in  v^hich  the  commandment  of 
the  Imitation  was  codified  by  some  of  the  later  authori- 
ties: "The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  He,  ordained  that 
man  should  cleave  to  his  ways,  as  it  is  written,  'Thou 
shalt  fear  the  Lord  thy  God,  him  shalt  thou  serve,  and 
to  him  shalt  thou  cleave'  (Deut.  lo  19).  But  how  can 
man  cleave  to  the  Shechinah?  Is  it  not  written, 
'For  the  Lord  thy  God  is  a  consuming  fire,  a  jealous 
God'?  (Deut.  424).  But  cleave  to  his  ways:  as  God 
nurses  the  sick,  so  do  thou  nurse  the  sick,  and  so 
forth."  ^  The  feature  of  jealousy  is  thus  quite  ignored, 
whilst  the  attributes  of  mercy  and  graciousness  become 
man's  law.  Indeed,  it  is  distinctly  taught  that  man 
should  not  imitate  God  in  the  following  four  things, 
which  He  alone  can  use  as  instruments.  They  are, 
jealousy  (Deut.  65),  revenge  (Ps.  94 1),  exaltation 
(Exod.  1521,  Ps.  931),  and  acting  in  devious  ways.^ 
The  prophet  Elijah,  who  said,  ''I  have  been  very 
jealous  for  the  Lord  God  of  Hosts"  (i  Kings  19  10), 
and  even  repeated  the  denunciation  of  Israel   {ihid, 

1  R.  Eliezer  of  Metz,  D*XT  ^BD,  §  3.     See  also  Maimonides,  X2'n'D, 

2  MHG.,  p.  549;    cf.  ^^1\^r:  irn-n  XpnS,  ed.  Schonblum,  §  34  in 
the  Five  Groups. 


LAW  OF  HOLINESS  AND   LAW   OF  GOODNESS      205 

V.  14),  was,  according  to  the  Rabbis,  rebuked  by  God, 
who  answered  him,  "Thou  art  always  jealous,"  and 
was  removed  from  his  prophetic  office,  Elisha  being 
appointed  prophet  in  his  stead. ^ 

The  second  or  negative  aspect  of  holiness  is  implied 
in  the  Hebrew  word  Kedushah,  the  original  meaning 
of  which  seems  to  be  "separation"  and  "withdrawal."  ^ 
So  the  Rabbis  paraphrase  the  verse,  "Sanctify  your- 
selves, therefore,  and  be  holy,  for  I  am  holy"  (Lev. 
II  44),  with  the  words,  "As  I  am  separated,  so  be  ye 
separated."  ^  By  the  separateness  of  God  is  not 
meant  any  metaphysical  remoteness,  but  merely  aloof- 
ness and  withdrawal  from  things  impure  and  defiling, 
as  incompatible  with  God's  holiness,  whence  Israel 
should  also  be  removed  from  everything  impure  and 
defiling. 

Foremost  among  the  things  impure,  which  range 
very  widely,  are:  idolatry,  adultery,  and  shedding  of 
blood.  To  these  three  cardinal  sins  the  term  Tumah 
(defilement)  is  especially  applied.^  The  defiling  nature 
of  the  second  (including  all  sexual  immorality)  is  par- 
ticularly   dwelt    upon    in    Rabbinic    literature.     Thus 

1  See  S.  E.  Z.,  p.  187  ;  and  Yalkut  to  Kings,  §  217.  Cf.  also  Cant, 
R.y  I  6  ;   Agadath  Shir  Hashiriffi,  p.  45.      See  also  above,  p.  52. 

2  See  Robertson  Smith's  Religion  of  the  Semites,  p.  140,  about  the 
uncertainty  of  the  original  meaning  of  the  word. 

3  T.  K.,  57  ^.     Cf.  ibid.,  86  c. 

*  See  Moreh  Nebuchim,  3  47.  Maimonides'  explanation  was  un- 
doubtedly suggested  to  him  by  T.  K.,%\  a  (to  Lev.  16  le).  Cf.  below, 
p.  122  seq.  See  also  Sifre,  113  «,  where  it  is  said  of  the  daughters  of 
Israel  that  they  are  nmntai  mtmp* 


206     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

the  Rabbis  interpret  the  verse,  "And  ye  shall  be  unto 
me  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  a  holy  nation"  (Exod. 
19 1),  with  the  words,  "  Be  unto  me  a  Idngdom  of 
priests,  separated  from  the  nations  of  the  world  and 
their  abominations."  ^  This  passage  must  be  taken 
in  connection  with  another,  in  which,  with  allusion  to 
the  scriptural  words,  "And  ye  shall  be  holy  unto  me 
.  .  .  and  I  have  severed  you  from  other  people  that 
you  should  be  mine"  (Lev.  2026),  the  Rabbis  point 
to  the  sexual  immorality  which  divides  the  heathen 
from  Israel.^  In  fact,  all  incontinence  was  called 
Tumah  (impurity),  indulgence  in  which  disqualifies 
(or  cuts  man  off  from  God);  God  says,  "What  joy 
can  I  have  in  him?"  ^  but  he  who  surrounds  himself 
with  a  fence  against  anything  unchaste  is  called  holy,* 
and  he  "who  shutteth  his  eyes  from  seeing  evil  (in  the 
sense  of  immorality)  is  worthy  of  receiving  the  very 
presence  of  the  Shechinah.^^  ^ 

The  notion  of  impurity  is  further  extended  to  all 
things  stigmatised  in  the  Levitical  legislation  as  un- 
clean,   particularly    to    the    forbidden    foods    "which 

1  Mechilta,  63  a.  A  few  lines  before  these  is  given  another  explana- 
tion to  the  words  t^llp  njl,  which  was  taken  by  the  great  master  of 
the  Agada,  Lector  Friedmann,  to  contain  a  protest  against  proselytis- 
ing.   The  text,  however,  seems  to  be  corrupt,  and  reads  in  the  MNG.y 

♦trnp  ^iji  h"n  rn  d^ohd  mi  •'jm  otr^  pors.  a.MechiHa  of  r- 

Simon,  p.  95. 

2  T.  K.,  93  b.     Cf.  Num.  R.,  9  7.  *  Lev.  R.,  26  6. 

3  T.  K.,  86  d.  5  See  Lev.  R.,  23,  end. 


LAW   OF  HOLINESS  AND   LAW  OF   GOODNESS      207 

make  the  soul  abominable,"  the  command  being, 
"  Be  holy  in  your  body."  The  observance  of  these 
laws  the  Rabbis  seem  to  consider  as  a  special  privilege 
of  Israel,  marking  the  great  distinction  between  them 
and  the  "descendants  of  Noah,"  ^  whilst  in  the  trans- 
gression of  them  they  saw  the  open  door  leading  to 
idolatry;  in  a  word,  to  a  deeper  degree  of  impurity.^ 

The  soul  is  also  made  abominable  —  and  hence 
impure  —  according  to  the  Rabbis,  by  doing  anything 
which  is  calculated  to  provoke  disgust,  as,  for  instance, 
by  eating  from  unclean  plates  or  taking  one's  food  with 
filthy  hands.^  In  fact,  to  do  anything  which  might 
have  a  sickening  effect  upon  others  is  ranked  among 
the  hidden  sins  which  "God  shall  bring  into  judge- 
ment";^ but  he  who  is  careful  to  refrain  from  things 
filthy  and  repulsive  brings  upon  himself  a  particular 
holiness  purifying  his  soul  for  the  sake  of  the  holy  one ; 
as  it  is  said,  "Ye  shall  sanctify  yourselves."  ^ 

1  See  Exod.  R.,  30  9,  and  ibid.,  319.  Cf.  Tan.  B.,  3  14  i,  and  see 
also  Pseudo-Jonathan  to  Lev.  20  7. 

2  This  seems  to  me  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  words  in  D.  E.  Z.,  ch. 

3,  v')h  nna  mx^i'LO  nbnn.  See  t.  k.,  57^,  dnn  Dnx  d^k^d  dxi 

on  Xfata^'?  D3S1D  and  cf.  the  T'Si^l.  The  other  explanation  given 
there  suggests  our  passage  to  be  a  parallel  to  that  quoted  in  the 
preceding  note  from  the  D.  E.  Z.     Perhaps  we  should  read  in  T.  K.^ 

3  See  T.  B.  Makkoth,  i6  b,  and  Maimonides,  mniDS  mbSXtt  m^brr, 
§  17,  the  last  five  msbn. 

*  See  T.  B.  Ckagigah,  5  a,  the  explanation  of  Rab.  to  Eccles.,  12  14. 
s  Maimonides,  ibid.     Cf.  T.  B.  Berachoth,  53  (5,  the  last  line  of  the 
page. 


208     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Lastly,  we  have  to  record  here  that  view  which  ex- 
tends the  notion  of  impurity  to  every  transgression  of 
Bibhcal  law.  Every  transgression  has  the  effect  of 
stupefying  the  heart/  whilst  the  observance  of  the 
laws  in  the  Torah  is  productive  of  an  additional  holi- 
ness.^ According  to  this  view,  all  the  commandments, 
negative  and  affirmative,  have  to  be  considered  as  so 
many  lessons  in  discipline,  which  if  only  as  an  educa- 
tion in  obedience,  result  in  establishing  that  communion 
between  man  and  God  which  is  the  crowning  reward  of 
holiness.  Thus  the  Rabbis  say,  with  allusion  to  the 
verse,  "That  ye  may  remember  and  do  all  my  com- 
mandments and  be  holy  unto  your  God"  (Num. 
15  40),  ''Heart  and  eyes  are  the  two  middlemen  of 
sin  in  the  body,  leading  him  astray.  The  matter  is 
to  be  compared  to  a  man  drowning  in  water,  to 
whom  the  shipmaster  threw  out  a  cord,  saying  unto 
him.  Hold  fast  to  this  cord,  for  if  thou  permit  it  to 
escape  thee,  there  is  no  life  for  thee.  Likewise, 
the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said  to  Israel,  'As 
long  as  you  cling  to  my  laws,  you  cleave  unto  the 
Lord  your  God  (which  means  life).  ...  Be  holy, 
for    as    long    as    you    fulfil  my    commandments   you 

1  See  T.  B.  Yoma,  39  a,  nn''S17  "^KyiStP  n  ^m  ^311,  etc.  By  Tn'"2'0 
in  this  passage  is  meant  the  transgression  of  any  law. 

2  See  Mechilta,  98  a,  and  T.  K.,  35  a,  and  91  d,  mSiDH  b'li  nimp. 
The  MHG.  also  seems  to  read  in  T.  K.  (to  Lev.  ii  44),  IT  Dntr^lpnm 
miia  ntrnp;  a  reading  which  is  confirmed  by  Maimonides  when  he 
says  (^Moreh  Nebuchim,  3  33.  47),  *  *  *  Dn^npnm  nbun^  1^»K  D3X2K 

ms:i2  ntrnp  it  kisd  jitr*?.    cf.  also  his  ^'-td,  §  4. 


LAW  OF  HOLINESS  AND   LAW  OF  GOODNESS     209 

are  sanctified,  but  if  you  neglect  them,  you  will   be- 
come profaned.'"  ^ 

Thus  far  holiness  still  moves  within  the  limits  of  the 
law,  the  obedience  to  which  sanctifies  man,  and  the 
rebellion  against  which  defiles.  There  is,  however, 
another  superior  kind  of  holiness  which  rises  above  the 
Law,  and  which,  as  already  indicated  in  the  opening 
remarks  of  this  chapter,  should  be  more  correctly  termed 
Chasiduth  (saintliness).  The  characteristic  of  the 
Chasid,  as  it  is  somewhere  pointed  out,  is  that  he  does 
not  wait  for  a  distinct  commandment.  He  endeavours 
to  be  pleasant  to  his  Maker,  and  like  a  good  son  studies 
his  father's  will,  inferring  from  the  explicit  wishes  of 
the  father  the  direction  in  which  he  is  likely  to  give 
him  joy.^  Hence  the  tendency  of  the  Chasid  to  devote 
himself  with  more  zeal  and  self-sacrifice  to  one  law  or 
group  of  laws  than  to  others;  just  according  to  the 
particular  bent  of  his  mind,  and  the  individual  con- 
ception of  the  will  of  his  father.  Thus  Rab  Judah 
perceives  the  "  things  of  Chasiduth^^  in  paying  particular 
attention  to  the  tractate  Nezikin  (Damages),  including 
the  laws  regarding  the  returning  of  lost  goods,  pro- 
hibition of  usury,  etc.,  and  in  avoiding  anything  which 
might  result  in  injury  to  a  fellow-man.  Rabba  again 
defines  Chasiduth  as  carrying  out  the  prescriptions 
in  the  tractate  of  Ahoth;  a  tractate,  be  it  observed,  in 
which  the  ritual  element  is  quite  absent,  as  it  is  limited 

1  Num.  R.,  176.     See  also  above,  p.  168. 

2  See  Luzzatto,  D'^IU^''  D^'DD,  ed.  Warsaw,  p.  24  b. 
P 


2IO     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

to  the  moral  sayings  and  spiritual  counsels  given  by 
the  ancient  Jewish  authorities.  Another  (anonymous) 
author  thinks  that  Chasiduth  consists  in  closely  observ- 
ing the  laws  prescribed  in  the  (liturgical)  tractate 
Berachoth  (Benedictions),  prayer  and  thanksgiving  hav- 
ing been  probably  the  particular  passion  of  this  Rabbi.* 
The  principle  of  Chasiduth  is  perhaps  best  summa- 
rised by  the  Talmudic  formula,  "Sanctify  thyself  even 
in  that  which  is  permitted  to  thee."  ^  R.  Eliezer,  of 
Worms,  who  takes  this  saying  as  the  motto  to  one  of  his 
chapters  on  the  Regulations  of  Chasiduth,  comments 
upon  it  to  the  effect:  "Sanctify  thyself  and  thy 
thoughts,  reflect  upon  the  unity  (of  God,  and  think 
of)  whom  thou  art  serving,  who  (it  is  that)  observes 
thee,  who  (it  is  that)  knows  thy  deeds,  and  who  (it 
is)  to  whom  thou  wilt  return.  .  .  .  Hence  be  (in 
ritual  questions)  stringent  with  thyself  and  lenient 
towards  others.  .  .  .  The  Torah  in  certain  cases  made 
concessions  to  the  weakness  of  the  flesh  (hence  the 
law  cannot  always  be  taken  as  the  supreme  standard 
of  conduct).  Take  no  oath  even  for  the  truth.  .  .  . 
Keep  thee  from  every  wicked  thing  (Deut.  23  ii),  which 
means,  among  others,  not  to  think  even  of  the  things 
impure,"  etc.^     Impure  thinking  was,  in  the  Rabbinic 

1  See  Bada  Kafna,  30  a,  text  and  commentaries,  especially  the  \"*^ 
to  their  corresponding  place  in  the  DS^K  D"l.  For  the  ten  things  of 
the  Chasiduth  which  Rab  is  said  to  have  observed  (mixture  of  the 
ceremonial  and  moral)  see  Sefer  Ha-Orah,  ed.  Buber,  pp.  3  and  4. 

2  See  Sifre,  95  «;    T.  B.Jebmnoth^  20  a. 

3  See  R.  Eliezer  of  Worms,  Introduction  to  the  Hpll. 


LAW  OF  HOLINESS  AND   LAW   OF  GOODNESS      211 

view,  the  antecedent  to  impure  doing,  and  the  ideal 
saint  was  as  pure  of  heart  as  of  hand,  acting  no  im- 
purity and  thinking  none. 

Very  expressive  is  Nachmanides,  whose  comments 
on  the  Rabbinic  paraphrase  of  Lev.  11  44,  ''As  I  am 
separated  so  be  ye  separated,"  are  to  the  following 
effect :  — 

According  to  my  opinion,  by  the  Talmudic  term 
mtr^'ia  separateness,  is  not  meant  the  abstaining 
from  Arayoth  (sexual  intercourse  forbidden  in  the 
Bible),  but  something  which  gives  to  those  who  practise 
it  the  name  of  Perushim.  The  matter  (is  thus) :  The 
Torah  has  forbidden  Arayoth  as  well  as  certain  kinds 
of  food,  but  allowed  intercourse  between  man  and  his 
wife  as  well  as  the  eating  of  meat  and  the  drinking  of 
wine.  But  even  within  these  limits  can  the  man  of 
(degenerate)  appetites  be  drenched  in  lusts,  become  a 
drunkard  and  a  glutton,  as  well  as  use  impure  lan- 
guage, since  there  is  no  (distinct)  prohibition  against 
these  things  in  the  Torah.  A  man  could  thus  be  the 
worst  libertine  with  the  very  license  of  the  Torah. 
Therefore  the  Scriptures,  after  giving  the  things  for- 
bidden absolutely  (in  detail),  concluded  with  a  general 
law  (of  holiness),  to  show  that  we  must  also  abstain 
from  things  superfluous.  As  for  instance,  that  even 
permitted  sexual  intercourse  should  be  submitted  to 
restrictions  (of  holiness),  preserving  it  against  degener- 
ating into  mere  animal  lust ;  that  the  drinking  of  wine 
should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  the  Nazir  being  called 


212     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

holy  because  he  abstains  from  drink;  and  that  one 
should  guard  one's  mouth  and  tongue  against  being 
defiled  by  gluttony  and  vile  language.  Man  should 
indeed  endeavour  to  reach  a  similar  degree  of  holi- 
ness to  R.  Chiya,  who  never  uttered  an  idle  v^ord  in 
his  life.  The  Scriptures  warn  us  to  be  clean,  pure,  and 
separated  from  the  crowd  of  men  who  taint  themselves 
with  luxuries  and  ugliness.^ 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  corrective  of  the  Law 
is  not  considered  by  Nachmanides  as  a  new  revelation; 
according  to  him  it  is  implied  in  the  general  scriptural 
rule  of  holiness,  which,  of  course,  considering  the 
indefinable  nature  of  holiness,  can  be  extended  to  any 
length.  Nor  were  the  Rabbis  conscious  of  any  innova- 
tion in  or  addition  to  the  Torah  when  they  promul- 
gated the  principle  of  sanctifying  oneself  by  refraining 
from  things  permitted;  a  principle  which  can  be  and 
was  applied  both  to  matters  ritual  as  well  as  to  morals 
and  conduct.^  As  it  would  seem,  they  simply  looked 
upon  it  as  a  mere  "  Fence"  (Geder)  preventing  man  from 
breaking  through  the  limits  drawn  by  the  Torah  itself. 
Very  instructive  in  this  respect  is  the  conversation  which 
the  Talmud  puts  in  the  mouth  of  King  David  and  his 
friend  Hushai,  the  Archite.  When  David  was  fleeing 
before  his  rebellious  son  Absalom,  he  is  reported  to  have 
been  asked  by  Hushai,  "Why  hast  thou  married  a  cap- 

1  Commentary  to  the  Pentateuch,  Lev.  192. 

2  See  np1"l,  idid.,  where  he  deducts  from  it  certain  stringent 
rules,  regarding  the  dietary  laws  as  well  as  others  bearing  on  conduct. 


LAW  OF  HOLINESS  AND   LAW   OF  GOODNESS     213 

tured  woman?"  For,  according  to  Rabbinic  legend, 
Absalom's  mother  Maacah  (2  Sam.  3  3)  was  a  woman 
taken  captive  in  war.  Hushai  thus  accounted  for  the 
misfortune  which  had  befallen  David  by  this  unhappy 
marriage.  But  David  answered  him,  "Has  not  the 
Merciful  allowed  such  a  marriage?"  (Deut.  2110-13), 
whereupon  Hushai  rejoins,  ''Why  didst  thou  not  study 
the  order  of  the  Scriptures  in  that  place?"  In  other 
words,  the  fact  that  the  regulations  regarding  the  woman 
taken  captive  in  war  are  closely  followed  by  the  law 
concerning  the  stubborn  and  rebellious  son  (Deut.  21 
18-21),  indicates  that  the  Torah,  though  not  absolutely 
forbidding  it,  did  not  wholly  approve  of  such  a  marriage, 
but  foretold  that  its  offspring  was  likely  to  prove  a 
source  of  misery  to  his  parents.^  The  corrective  of 
the  Law,  for  the  neglect  of  which  corrective  David  is  so 
terribly  punished,  is  thus  effected,  not  by  something 
antagonistic  to  or  outside  of  it,  but  by  its  own  proper 
interpretation  and  expansion.  As  another  instance  of 
this  kind  I  quote  the  following,  which,  rendered  in  the  old 
Rabbinic  style,  would  run  thus:  "We  have  heard  that 
it  is  written,  'Thou  shalt  not  kill'  (Exod.  20  13).  We 
should  then  think  that  the  prohibition  is  confined  to  ac- 
tual murder.  But  there  are  also  other  kinds  of  shedding 
blood,  as,  for  instance,  to  put  a  man  to  shame  in  public, 
which  causes  his  blood  to  leave  his  face.  Hence  to 
cause  this  feeling  is  as  bad  as  murder,  whence  he  who  is 
guilty  of  it  loses  his  share  in  the  world  to  come.^    Again, 

1  See  T.  B,  Sanhedrin,  107  a.         2  gee  T.  Z.  Baba  Mezia,  59  a. 


214     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

we  have  heard  that  it  is  written, '  Thou  shalt  not  commit 
adultery'  (Exod.  20  14).  But  the  phrase  in  Job  (24  15), 
'The  eye  also  of  the  adulterer  waiteth  for  twilight/ 
teaches  us  that  an  unchaste  look  is  also  to  be  con- 
sidered as  adultery;  and  the  verse,  'And  that  ye  seek 
not  after  your  own  heart  and  your  own  eyes,  after 
which  ye  used  to  go  a  whoring'  (Num.  15  39),  teaches 
us  that  an  unchaste  look  or  even  an  unchaste  thought 
are  also  to  be  regarded  as  adultery."  ^ 

The  law  of  goodness,  closely  connected  with  the  law 
of  holiness,  is  another  corrective  of  the  Law.  It 
developed  from  such  general  commandments  as  the  one 
in  Deuteronomy,  "  And  thou  shalt  do  that  which  is  right 
and  good  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  "  (6  I8),  which,  as 
Nachmanides  aptly  remarked,  means  that  the  Torah 
bids  man  to  direct  his  mind  to  do  what  is  good  and  up- 
right in  the  sight  of  God,  seeing  that  God  loves  goodness 
and  uprightness.  He  proceeds  to  say,  "  This  is  an 
important  point,  for  it  is  impossible  to  refer  in  the  Torah 
to  all  the  relations  between  man  and  his  neighbours, 
and  his  friends,  his  business  affairs,  and  to  all  the  im- 
provements bearing  upon  one's  community  and  one's 

1  See  Lev.  R.,  23  11.  Cf.  P.  R.,  124  3,  text  and  notes.  See  also  Me- 
chiltaoiK.  Simon,  iii,  ibi  5<bl  ^173  kS  V  ^«r  K^IT  ^^:T\  ^b  X'H 

t33^ru  ^inxi  nannb  ^inK  i*nnn  xbi  n^riD^  pDia  nbm  j^untr  i^ixsv 

Cf.  also  New  Testament,  Matt.  5  21  and  27.  I  suspect  that  the  ex- 
pression in  the  N.  T.,  "Ye  have  heard,"  had  originally  something  to 
do  with  the  Talmudic  formula  b"r\  *  *  *  ^3K  U^IIT,  or  *  *  *  W^'^  )jh 
h"r\  '  *  ♦  K^X,  or  b"n  ♦  ♦  ♦  y^tt^^n  (seeMecAi/^a,  81  d,  82  d,  and  84  a). 
Cf.  also  below,  224  sgg. 


LAW  OF  HOLINESS  AND  LAW  OF  GOODNESS     215 

country.'^  But  after  the  Torah  had  mentioned  many 
such  laws  in  another  place  (Lev.  19),  it  repeats  in 
a  general  way  that  man  has  to  do  what  is  good  and 
upright,  which  includes  such  things  as  arbitration  (in 
the  case  of  money  litigations)  and  the  not  insisting 
upon  the  strict  law.  It  further  includes  certain  laws 
relating  to  neighbourly  considerations  as  well  as  to 
kindly  behaviour  towards  one's  fellow-men.^  Jerusalem 
indeed  was  destroyed  only  because  of  the  sin  that  they 
insisted  upon  the  law  of  the  Torah,^  thereby  trans- 
gressing the  law  of  goodness.  According  to  others, 
this  precept  of  not  insisting  upon  the  law  of  the  Torah, 
and  acting  in  a  merciful  way,  is  to  be  derived  from 
Exod.  18  20,  where  Moses  is  asked  to  make  Israel 
acquainted  both  with  the  Law  and  with  the  (merciful) 
actions  going  beyond  the  Law.^  As  a  practical  illus- 
tration of  this  law  of  goodness,  we  quote  here  the  fol- 
lowing case:  Rabba  Bar  bar  Ghana  had  a  litigation 
with  carriers  who  broke  (during  their  work)  a  cask  of 
wine.  He  then  took  away  their  clothes  ;  whereupon 
they  brought  to  Rab  a  complaint  against  him.     Rab 

iSee  Nachmanides'  commentary  to  Deut.  6  is.  Cf.  Deut.  12  28  and 
14 19.  See  also  Si/re,  91  a  and  94  a,  on  these  verses.  Cf.  also  Maimon- 
ides,  D''3!Dt!?,  148,  text  and  commentaries. 

"^  Baba  Meziah,  13  b. 

3  See  Mechilta^  59  b\  Baba  Meziah,  30  b;  cf.  also  Pseudo-Jonathan 
to  this  verse  in  Exod.,  where  it  is  emphasised  that  this  merciful  treat- 
ment beyond  the  law  should  extend  also  to  the  wicked.  pT  and  D"'3B7 
1^^r\  nmira  correspond  often  with  |'"in  mia  and  D'!2n^,n  mtt,  the 
quality  of  law  or  justice  and  the  quality  of  mercy.  See  Jer.  Baba 
Kama,  6  c.    Note  the  use  of  these  terms  of  men. 


2i6     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

said  to  him,  *'  Give  them  back  their  clothes."  Rabba 
then  asked,  ''Is  this  the  law?"  He  said,  "Yes  (as 
it  is  said,  '  Thou  may  est  walk  in  the  way  of  the  good  ' 
[Prov.  2  20])."  He  gave  them  back  their  clothes.  The 
carriers  then  said,  "  We  are  poor  men  and  laboured  the 
whole  day,  and  now  we  are  hungry  and  have  nothing 
to  eat."  Rab  then  said,  "  Pay  them  their  wages." 
Whereupon  Rabba  again  asked,  "Is  this  the  law?" 
He  said,  "  Yes  (as  it  is  said),  '  And  keep  the  path  of 
the  righteous'  [Prov.  ibid.]J^^  A  not  less  striking 
case  is  the  following:  The  Roman  army  once  be- 
sieged the  town  of  Lydda,  and  insisted  upon  the  de- 
livering up  of  a  certain  Ula  bar  Koseheb,  threatening 
the  defenders  with  the  destruction  of  the  place  and 
the  massacre  of  its  inhabitants  in  case  of  further 
refusal.  R.  Joshua  ben  Levi  then  exerted  his  in- 
fluence with  Ula,  that  he  would  voluntarily  deliver 
himself  to  the  Romans  so  that  the  place  might  be 
saved.  Thereupon,  the  prophet  Elijah,  who  often 
had  communion  with  R.  Joshua  ben  Levi,  stopped  his 
visits.  After  a  great  deal  of  penance,  which  the 
Rabbi  imposed  upon  himself,  Elijah  came  back  and 
said,  "Am  I  expected  to  reveal  myself  to  informers  ?  " 
Whereupon  the  Rabbi  asked,  "  Have  I  not  acted  in 
accordance  with  the  strict  letter  of  the  law?  "  "  But," 
retorted  Elijah,  "  this  is  not  the  law  of  the  saints.' 


n  2 


1  Bada  Meziah,  83  a.     See  also  Rabbinowicz,  Variae  Lectiones,  a.l. 

2  See  /er.    Terumoth,  46  b.    Cf.    Schechter,   Studies   in  /udaistn. 
Second  Series,  pp.  116  seq.  and  i66  seq. 


LAW  OF  HOLINESS  AND   LAW  OF  GOODNESS     217 

The  crowning  reward  of  Kedushah,  or  rather  Chasi- 
duth,  is,  as  already  indicated,  communion  with  the 
Holy  Spirit,  "Chasiduth  leading  to  the  Holy  Spirit," 
or,  as  it  is  expressed  in  another  place,  "Holiness  means 
nothing  else  than  prophecy."  ^  This  superior  holiness, 
which  implies  absolute  purity  both  in  action  and 
thought,  and  utter  withdrawal  from  things  earthly, 
begins,  as  a  later  mystic  rightly  points  out,  with  a 
human  effort  on  the  part  of  man  to  reach  it,  and  finishes 
with  a  gift  from  heaven  bestowed  upon  man  by  an  act 
of  grace.^  The  Talmud  expresses  the  same  thought 
when  we  read,  ''If  man  sanctifies  himself  a  little,  they 
(in  heaven)  sanctify  him  much ;  if  man  sanctifies  him- 
self below  (on  earth),  they  bestow  upon  him  (more) 
holiness  from  above."  ^  "Everything  is  in  need  of 
help  (from  heaven)."  *  Even  the  Torah,  which  is 
called  pure  and  holy,  has  only  this  sanctifying  effect, 
when  man  has  divested  himself  from  every  thought 
of  pride,  when  he  has  purified  himself  from  any  con- 
sideration of  gold  and  silver,  when  he  is  indeed  quite 
pure  from  sin."  ^  Only  Torah  with  holiness  can  bring 
about  communion  with  God.  Thus  runs  a  prayer,  or 
rather  prophecy,  by  an  ancient  Rabbi:    "Learn  with 

1  'ns  trnp  pK  n^xstt^  nxiis  k^k  ntrnp  pK  nnpm  tt^npn  nxi, 

Midrash  in  Ms.     Cf.  also  Monatsschrift,  vol.   50,  beginning  of  p.  410, 
given  from  the  Sifre  Zuta. 

2  D^D^  nb^ca,  36  a,  njnss  laiDi  mbnntr^n  in'^nn  ♦  ♦  ♦  ntrnpn  pi?. 

3  T.  B.  Yoma,  39  a. 

4  Midrash  to  Ps.  20.     Cf.  Tan.  D'tmp,  9. 

^  See  Mechilta  of  R.  Simon,  98.     Cf.  above,  p.  160. 


2i8     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

all  thy  heart  and  all  thy  soul  to  know  my  ways,  and  to 
watch  the  gates  of  my  Torah.  Preserve  my  Torah  in 
thy  heart,  and  may  my  fear  be  present  before  thy  eyes. 
Guard  thy  mouth  against  all  sin,  and  make  thyself 
holy  against  all  sin  and  injustice,  and  I  will  be  with 
thee."  ^  Hence  the  prayer  which  so  often  occurs  in 
the  Jewish  liturgy,  "Sanctify  us  by  thy  command- 
ments," for  any  thought  of  pride  or  any  worldly  con- 
sideration is  liable  to  undo  the  sanctifying  effect  of 
the  performance  of  any  divine  law. 

1  T.  B.  Berachoth,  \*j  a.    See  also  Rabbinowicz,  Variae  Lectiones,  to 
the  passage. 


XIV 
SIN  AS   REBELLION 

The  teaching  of  the  Rabbis  with  regard  to  the 
doctrines  of  sin,  repentance,  and  forgiveness  is  in  har- 
mony with  their  conception  of  man's  duty  towards  the 
Law.  This  duty,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  result  of  the 
doctrine  of  God's  Kingship/  As  a  consequence,  sin 
and  disobedience  are  conceived  as  defiance  and  rebel- 
Uon.  The  root  !?trS,  used  in  the  confession  of  the 
High  Priest  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  denoting,  accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbis,  the  highest  degree  of  sin,  is  ex- 
plained by  them  to  mean  rebellion,  illustrating  it  by 
parallel  passages  in  2  Kings  i  1,  3  4  and  7.^  The  gen- 
eration of  Enosh,  the  generation  of  the  deluge,  and  the 
generation  which  built  the  Tower  of  Babylon  are 
described  as  rebels  who  transferred  the  worship  of  God 
to  idols  or  to  man  and  thus  profaned  the  Holy  Name.^ 
The  same  remark  is  also  made  of  Nimrod,  who  made 
man  rebel  against  God,  and  of  the  people  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah.  These  latter,  and  the  generation  of 
Enosh  and  the  generation  of  the  deluge,  as  well  as 
the  people  of  Egypt,  are  further  described   as  those 

1  See  above,  p.  1 16.  Cf.  also  Pseudo-Jotiatkan,  Exod.  34  7,  Lev.  16  21, 
and  Num.  14  is. 

2  T.  K.,  80  d.     Cf.  Lev.  16  16  and  21. 

3  See  T.  K.,  in  b.  Gen.  7^.,  23  7  and  264. 

219 


220     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

who  caused  pains  to  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  and 
spited  him  by  their  wicked  deeds/  As  men  spiting 
God,  reference  is  also  made  to  certain  kings  of  Judah, 
as  Ahaz,  Amon,  and  Jehoiakim.^  In  the  Halachic 
literature  we  meet  also  with  the  spite  apostate,  or  the 
apostate  out  of  spite,  D^^Dn7  *n^1^,  who  commits 
sin,  not  for  the  sake  of  satisfying  his  appetite,  but  with 
the  purpose  of  showing  his  rebellious  spirit.^ 

Closely  connected  with  rebellion  is  the  porek  ol 
(713?  p*11S),  that  is,  he  who  throws  off  the  yoke  of  the  "^ 
Omnipresent,  or  of  heaven/  The  term  porek  ol  is 
differently  explained  by  various  Rabbis,  meaning 
according  to  some,  the  worshipper  of  idols,^  according 
to  others,  the  man  who  treats  the  Torah  as  antiquated 
matter  and  declares  its  laws  as  abrogated.®  The 
throwing  off  of  the  yoke  is  classed  together  with  the 
removing  of  the  Covenant  made  by  God  with  Israel 
on  Mount  Sinai,  ^  and  the  uncovering  of  faces,  ^  that  is, 

1  Gen.  R.,  272.  Cf.  also  Si/re,  136  a;  Mechilta,  35  b  and  36  a; 
and  Num.  R.,  9  24.  2  Sanhedrin,  103  b. 

^  See  Horayoth,  11  a.     See  also  Rabb.  Dictionaries. 

*  See  Si/re,  93  a,  and  Sanhedrin,  111  b. 

^  See  Sifre,  ^1  b,  with  references  to  Num.  15  22. 

6  See  /er.  Peak,  16  b,  and  Jer.  Sanhedrin,  27  r.  Cf.  Friedmann's 
essay  in  the  Beth  Talmud,  i  331-334. 

■^  See  Jer.  Peah  and  Sanhedrin  as  above;  Sifre,  ^i  b  and  33a;. 
According  to  others,  by  this  Covenant  is  meant  the  Covenant  of  Abra- 
ham ;  see  Si/re,  31  b,  §  iii  (to  Num.  15  22),  and  the  commentary  of 
R.  Hillel,  quoted  by  Friedmann  in  his  Notes  (Note  3).  Cf.  also  in 
Friedmann,  Beth  Talmud,  i,  p,  334. 

8  See  Sifre,  ibid,  (to  Num.  15  31).  Cf.  Mishnah  A  both,  3  13,  and 
A.  R.  N.,  I  41  b,  text  and  Note  16  for  other  parallels.     The  best  Mss. 


SIN  AS  REBELLION  221 

the  treatment  of  the  words  of  the  Torah  irreverently  or- 
ridicuHng  them,  as  Manasseh,  the  son  of  Hezekiah,  did, 
when  he  preached  "  scandalous  homilies,  asking  '  Could 
not  Moses  have  written  other  things  than,  "And  Reuben 
went  in  the  days  of  the  wheat-harvest,"  etc.  (Gen.  30  m), 
or  "And  Lotan's  sister  was  Timna"  (Gen.  36  22)'?".^ 
To  both  these  classes,  according  to  some  Rabbis,  the 
words  of  the  Scriptures  refer:  "But  the  soul  that  does 
aught  presumptuously  .  .  ."  or  "who  hath  despised 
the  word  of  the  Lord  and  has  broken  His  Com- 
mandments" (Num.  15  30  and  3l).^ 

have  not  the  words  HDbniD  K^ti?.  Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  1  197;  Termi- 
nologies I  149.  See  also  his  Die  Bihelexegese  Moses  Maimonides,  p.  16, 
note  4.  Cf.  also  P.  R,  E.,  ch.  44,  where  this  explanation  of  uncovering 
the  faces  is  used  of  men  in  the  sense  of  putting  them  to  shame. 

1  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  Sifre,  33  a  (to  Num.  15  so) ;  cf  /er. 
Peak  and  Sanhedrin,  ibid.  Certain  Rabbis  of  a  later  date  think  that 
the  uncoverer  of  faces  is  he  who  denies  revelation  (cf.  Sanhedrin,  99  a) 
or  "  he  who  transgresses  the  word  of  the  Torah  in  public,  as  the  king 
Jehoiakim  the  king  of  Judah  and  his  associates,"  while  in  the  Bab. 
Sanhedrin,  99  b,  the  phrase  is  explained  to  mean  he  who  despises  the 
scholars.     Cf.  Friedmann,  ibid.,  pp.  334  and  335. 

2  Sifre,  ibid.  Cf.  Sanhedrin,  99  b.  See  also  Guttmann,  Monats- 
schrift,  42,  p.  337  seq.  He  tries  to  justify  the  reading  .137.13  xbtt', 
explaining  it  to  mean  the  allegoric  interpretation  of  Scriptures,  in 
opposition  to  its  literal  meaning  (especially  the  legal  portions),  with 
the  intention  of  abolishing  the  law.  Dr.  Guttmann's  explanation  re- 
ceives support  from  the  fact  that  the  interpretations  of  the  Rabbis  in 
the  Sifre  in  the  quoted  places  are  undoubtedly  strongly  polemical,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  passage,  forming  a  comment  on  Num. 
1522  and  23:  "Where  is  it  to  be  inferred  from  that  he  who  beUeves 
in  the  worship  of  idols  is  as  much  as  if  he  denied  the  Ten  Words  (the 
Decalogue)  ?  .  .  .  Where  is  it  further  to  be  inferred  from  that  it  is  as 
much  as  if  he  would  deny  all  that  was  commanded  to  Moses,  .  .  .  that 


222     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

Another  expression  suggesting  rebellion  is  ''stretch- 
ing the  hand  into  the  root."  By  this  is  chiefly  meant 
blasphemy  and  other  sins  punishable  by  stoning.^ 
Blasphemers  are  sometimes  classified  together  with 
those  who  commit  sins  in  secrecy,  and  act  insolently  in 
public,  and  those  who  are  men  of  strife.  They  will 
end  as  Korah  and  his  congregation.^ 

The  transgressions  of  which  the  most  prominent  of  the 
rebels  (especially  the  generations  of  the  deluge,  and 
the  people  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah)  were  guilty  are 
the  three  cardinal  sins^  causing  contamination  and  defile- 
ment ^  which  the  Jew  is  bound  to  undergo  martyrdom 
for  rather  than  commit.^     These  three  things  are:  — 

Idolatry. — "He  who  worships  idols  is  called 
'desolation,  abomination,  hateful,  unclean,  and  iniqui- 

was  commanded  to  the  Prophets,  .  .  .  that  was  commanded  to  the 
Patriarchs?  .  .  .  Thus,  the  Scripture  teaches  that  he  who  believes  in 
the  worship  of  idols  is  as  much  as  if  he  would  deny  the  Ten  Words, 
the  commandments  that  Moses  was  commanded,  the  commandments 
that  the  Prophets  were  commanded,  the  commandments  that  the  Patri- 
archs were  commanded ;  and  he  who  denies  the  worship  of  idols  is  as 
much  as  if  he  would  confess  the  whole  of  the  Torah." 

1  See  Jer.  Sanhedrin,  23  c. 

2  See  A.  R.  N.,  2  35;  D.  E.,  ch.  2,  and  S.  E.,  p.  77.  It  will  be 
seen  from  these  parallel  passages  that  the  reading  is  doubtful. 
Interesting  is  it  that  in  the  S.  E.  and  D.  E.  R.y  the  various  groups  of 
heavy  sinners  include  both  the  heretic,  the  sectarian,  and  the  apos- 
tate, as  well  as  those  who  corner  wheat,  who  lend  on  usury,  and 
who  gamble.     Cf.  above,  p.  113. 

3  See  Gen.  R.,  28  8  and  9;  31  6;  32  41;  41  27.  Cf.  A.  R.  N.  36  b  seq.y 
and  Sanhedrin,  \o^  b  and  109  a. 

4  See  T.  K.,  81  c,  and  Num.  R.,  7,  §  10. 

5  See  Sanhedrin,  74  a.  Cf.  Graetz's  Geschichte  d.  Juden,  3,  pp. 
156  and  431. 


SIN   AS  REBELLION 


223 


tous,  and  causes  five  things :  the  contamination  of  the 
land,  the  profanation  of  the  name  of  God,  the  removal 
of  the  Shechinah,  the  delivering  of  Israel  to  the  sword, 
and  the  banishment  of  them  from  their  land.'"  ^  But 
the  three  cardinal  sins  have  their  appurtenances,  of 
which  a  few  will  be  given  here.  Thus,  pride  is  another 
form  of  idolatry,  and  has  the  same  grave  results. 
"  Moses  was  considered  worthy  to  draw  near  the  thick 
darkness  (Exod.  20  21),  because  of  his  humility,  as  it  is 
said,  'The  man  Moses  was  very  humble'  (Num.  12  3). 
The  Scriptures  teach  that  he  who  is  humble  will  as  a 
result  make  the  Shechinah  dwell  with  man  on  earth, 
as  it  is  said,  'For  thus  said  the  high  and  lofty  One 
that  inhabiteth  eternity,  whose  name  is  Holy,  "  I  dwell 
in  the  high  and  holy  place  with  him  also  that  is  of  a 
contrite  heart  and  humble  spirit" '  "^  (Isa.  57  15).  "But 
he  who  has  a  proud  heart  will  bring  defilement  to  the 
land  and  cause  to  remove  the  Shechinah,  to  remove  as 
it  is  said,  'He  who  has  a  proud  heart  and  high  looks, 
with  him  I  cannot  be  together'  (Ps.  loi  5).^  Again,  he 
who  is  proud  of  heart  is  called  abomination  (Pro v.  165) 
as  the  idol  is  called  abomination  (Deut.  7  26),  but  as 
idolatry  causes  the  defilement  of  the  land  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  Shechinah,  so  does  he  who  is  proud  of 
heart  "  cause  the  same  things.^     It  is  only  by  forget- 

1  See    Sifre,    104  a,  text  and  Note  7.     nrStt?  p6^D  =  n^3B  inD.I. 
Cf.  Onkelos,  Deut  31  :  18. 

2  In  the  text  are  given  also  citations  from  Isa.  611;   66  2  ;   Ps.  51  19. 

3  The  Rabbis  interpreted  it  as  if  they  read  iriK,  "  with  him,"  instead 
of  Ink.     See  Arachin,  1^  b.  *  Mechilta,  72  a. 


224     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

ting  God  that  man's  heart  can  be  lifted  up  by  conceit 
(Deut.  8  14)/  There  is  no  room  for  the  Divine  beside 
him,  the  Holy  One  saying,  "He  and  I  cannot  dwell  in 
the  same  place."  ^  Something  similar  is  said  of  the 
man  who  is  wroth.  The  very  Shechinah  is  not  re- 
spected by  a  man  in  a  violent  temper.^  Indeed,  he 
sets  up  the  strange  god  which  is  in  himself  which  he 
worships.^ 

Adultery.  —  "All  forbidden  sexual  relations  are  called 
contamination  .  .  .  (Tumah).  If  you  pollute  yourself 
by  them  (God  says)  you  are  hewn  off  (or  cut  off)  from 
me;  what  joy  have  I  in  you?  you  have  incurred 
the  penalty  of  extermination.^  As  the  idolater,  the 
adulterer  (or  even  the  one  who  does  any  action 
which  may  lead  to  adultery)  is  also  called  desolation, 
abomination,  hateful,  unclean,  and  iniquitous.^  Again, 
before  they  sinned,  the  Shechinah  was  dwelling  with 
every  one  of  Israel,  as  it  is  said,  "The  Lord,  thy  God 
walketh  in  the  midst  of  thy  camp"  (Deut.  23  15),  but 
after  they  sinned  (abandoning  themselves  to  immorality), 
the  Shechinah  was  removed,  as  it  is  said,  "that  he  see 
no  unclean  thing  in  thee,  and  turn  away  from  this  " 
(Deut.  ibid.).''  The  sin  of  adultery  further  involves  the 
i  sin  of  heresy,  or  that  of  denying  God's  knowledge  of  the 
secret  actions  of  man.    Thus,  with  reference  to  Job  24 15, 

1  See  So^ak,  4  3.  4  Shabbath,  105  b. 

2  Sotah,  5  a.     Cf.  also  Berachoih,  43  a.  ^  T.  K.,  86  d. 
^  Nedarim,  22  b.                                                   6  Sifre,  115  3. 

■^  See  Sotah,  3  3 ;   cf.  Sifre,  120  b  and  121  a;   A.  R.  N.,  i,  58  a. 


SIN  AS  REBELLION  22$ 

the  Rabbis  paraphrase  it  in  the  following  way:  ''The 
eye  also  of  the  adulterer  waiteth  for  the  twilight,  say- 
ing, No  Eye  (that  is,  the  Eye  of  the  Above)  shall  see 
me."  ^  For  so  the  adulterer  says,  no  creature  knows 
it.  But  the  eyes  of  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  run 
to  and  fro  through  the  world.  .  .  .  Grave  is  (the  case 
of)  the  adulterer,  and  that  of  the  thief,  both  causing 
the  removal  of  the  Shechinah.  ...  Is  not  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  everywhere?  Can  any  one  hide 
himself  in  secret  places  that  I  shall  not  see  him?  saith 
the  Lord.  Do  I  not  fill  heaven  and  earth?  saith  the 
Lord  (Jer.  23  24).  But  the  adulterer  acts  in  such  a 
way  (as  if)  he  said  to  God,  "Remove  thyself  for  a  short 
while,  and  make  room  for  me."  ^  But  adultery  in- 
cludes every  unchaste  action  or  unchaste  thought, 
the  Biblical  prohibitions  extending  to  all  kinds  of 
unchastity,  whether  in  action  or  in  thought.^ 
Heresy  is  also  considered  an  unclean  thought  and 
comes  also  under  the  heading  of  the  commandment, 
"Then  keep  thee  from  every  wicked  thing"  (Deut. 
23  10).^  The  Olah  (burnt-offering),  though  belong- 
ing to  the  voluntary  offerings,    is   declared  to    have 

1  See  Num.  R.,  9,  i. 

2  Tan.  B.,  4  14  b,  15  a.  Cf.  Zach.  4  10.  Cf.  also  Tan.  B.,  ibid., 
13  ^  and  14  a,  and  Num.  R.^  9 12  ;  where  it  is  maintained  that  adultery 
means  a  breach  cf  all  the  Ten  Commandments.  The  breach  with  the 
first  commandment  is  proved  ixom  Jeremiah  5  12. 

3  For  references,  see  above,  p.  214,  note  i,  to  which  are  to  be  added 
Sifre,  35  a;  Berachoth,  12  b.     Cf.  Maimonides,  Vtt  n'6D,  ti'TlD. 

*  See  Sif7'e,  120  b,  and  Abodah  Zarah,  20  b. 
Q 


226     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

the  function  of  atoning  for  the  (sinful)  meditations 
of  the  heart,  as  it  is  even  said  of  Job:  "And  (Job) 
offered  burnt -offerings,  according  to  the  number  of 
them  all :  for  Job  said.  It  may  be  that  my  sons  have 
sinned,  and  cursed  God  in  their  hearts.  Thus  did 
Job  continually"  (Job  i  5).^  The  uttering  of  obscene 
words  brings  distress  and  death  into  the  world.^  In 
fact,  he  who  uses  foul  language  is  included  among  these 
wicked,  of  whom  it  is  said,  "Behold  the  day  cometh, 
that  shall  burn  as  an  oven,  and  .  .  .  shall  burn  them 
up"  (Mai.  3  19),  whilst  he  who  indulges  in  impure 
thought  is  not  admitted  into  the  presence  of  God.^ 

Shedding  of  Blood  also  has  the  effect  of  contaminat- 
ing the  land  and  removing  the  Shechinah,  besides  that 
of  leading  to  the  destruction  of  Israel's  sanctuary.'' 
He  who  commits  murder  acts  like  one  who  overturns 
the  statue  of  the  king,  destroys  his  image,  and  muti- 
lates his  impress  (on  the  coins).  "For  in  the  image  of 
God  made  he  man"  (Gen.  96).^  "But  he  who  trans- 
gresses a  light  commandment  will  end  in  violating  the 
more  heavy  one.  If  he  neglected  (the  injunction  of) 
'Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself  (Lev.  19  is), 
he  will  soon  transgress  the  commandment  of  'Thou 

1  See  Tan.  B.,  3  9  «.     See  below,  p.  300,  note  2. 

2  See  Shabbaih,  33  a. 

3  See  Niddah,  1 3  <^.  Cf.  English  version,  Mai.  4  1.  Cf.  above,  pp. 
207  and  214. 

4  T.  K.,  62  a  ;   cf.  Shabhath,  33  a. 

5  See  Mechilta,  70  b.    Cf.  Mishnah  Sanhedrin,  4  5,  and  Exod.  J?., 

30  16. 


SIN   AS  REBELLION  227 

shall  not  hate  thy  brother  in  thine  heart'  {ibid.,  v.  17), 
and  that  of  'Thou  shalt  not  avenge  or  bear  grudge 
against  the  children  of  thy  people'  {ibid.,  v.  is),  Vv^hich, 
terminating  in  acting  against  'And  thy  brother  shall 
live  with  thee'  (ibid.,  25  36),  will  lead  to  the  shedding 
of  blood."  ^  In  fact,  "wanton  hatred"  is  as  great  a 
sin  as  idolatry,  adultery,  and  shedding  of  blood,  all 
combined.^  Likewise  the  sin  of  slander  and  back- 
biting is  even  worse  than  the  three  cardinal  sins,^  for 
man  would  never  make  these  utterances  unless  he 
"denied  the  root "  ^  (the  existence  of  God),  and  they 
have  the  effect  of  removing  the  Shechinah  from  the 
world.^ 

Again,  he  who  robs  his  neighbour,  even  if  the  goods 
robbed  do  not  amount  to  more  than  the  value  of  a 
Perutah,  is  as  much  as  if  he  murdered  him.®  Some 
Rabbis  maintain  the  sin  of  the  generation  of  the 
deluge  to  have  consisted  in  robbery  (^t^),  that  is, 
the  appropriation  of  wealth  by  violence  and  other 
unlawful  means.  "Behold,"  says  Rabbi  Jochanan, 
"how  terrible  are  the  effects  of  robbery,  for,  though 
the  generation  of  the  deluge  transgressed  everything, 
their  verdict  (of  extermination)  was  not  sealed  till  they 
stretched  forth  their  hands  to  acquire  wealth  by  un- 

1  See  ?'.  JiT.,  108  l> ;   cf.  D.  E.,  ch,  11.  2  y^^^^,  9  K 

3  M.  T.,  52  2.     Cf.  also  ibid.,  39  1,  and  Arachin,  \^b. 

^Jer.  Peak,  16  a.     Cf.  M.  T.,  52  2. 

^Jer.  Peak,  ibid.,  and  P.  K.,  31  b,  and  M.  T.,  7  7. 

6  Baba  Kama^  119  a.     Cf.  Lev.  R.,  22  I6. 


228     SOME  ASPECTS  OF   RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

lawful  means."  ^  Again,  the  prophet  Ezeldel  in  his  ex- 
hortation (c.  22  3-12)  enumerated  twenty-four  sins,  but 
wound  up  with  the  words,  "And  thou  hast  greedily 
gained  of  thy  neighbours  by  extortion,  and  hast  for- 
gotten me,  said  the  Lord  God."^  Nay,  God  calls 
him  "wicked"  even  after  he  made  restitution.^ 

Sacrifices  brought  by  the  man  who  is  not  quite  free 
from  the  sin  of  robbery  are  rejected.  "If  thou  dost 
wish  to  bring  an  offering,  rob  no  man  first,  for  I, 
the  Lord,  love  judgement,  'I  hate  robbery  for  burnt- 
offering'  (Isa.  6 1  8).  I  shall  only  accept  it  when  thou 
wilt  have  cleansed  thy  hands  from  plunder."  ^  Some- 
thing similar  is  said  of  charity:  Here  is  a  man  who 
committed  an  immoral  action,  on  which  he  spent  his 
money,  but  he  hardly  left  the  place  when  a  poor  man 
met  him  and  addressed  him  for  alms.  This  man 
thinks  that  God  put  this  poor  man  in  his  way  with 
the  purpose  of  making  him  find  pardon  through  the 
alms  he  gave,  but  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  says  : 
Wicked  man,  think  not  so.  The  hand  which  gives 
alms  will  not  cleanse  the  other  from  the  evil  which  it 
did  by  paying  the  wages  of  sin.^  Indeed,  the  prayers 
of  the  man  whose  hands  are  tainted  by  robbery  are 
not  answered,  for  his  supplication  is  turbid,  being 
under   transgression.       Therefore    man   is    bound    to 

1  Sanhedrin,  io8  a.     Cf.  Tanhuma  Noah,  4. 

2  See  Lev.  R.,  33  3;   MLIG.,  p.  143. 

*  Yalkut  to  Ezekiel,  §  782,  reproduced  from  Yelamdenu. 

*  Tan.  B.,  37  a.  &  See  Midrask  Prov.,  ch.  11. 


SIN  AS  REBELLION  229 

cleanse  his  heart  (from  every  covetousness)  before  he 
prays,  as  it  is  said,  "No  robbery  in  mine  hands,  and 
my  prayer  is  clean"  (pure)  (Job  16  17)/ 

The  wrong  administration  of  justice  may  also  be 
classified  under  this  heading:  The  Holy  One,  blessed 
be  he,  does  not  cause  his  divine  presence  to  rest  upon 
Israel,  until  the  false  judges  and  bad  officers  shall 
have  disappeared  from  their  midst.^  "When  three 
establish  a  court,  the  Shechinah  is  with  them,"  ^  and 
God  says  to  the  judges,  "Think  not  that  you  are  alone, 
I  am  sitting  with  you,"  ^  but  when  they  are  about  to 
corrupt  judgement,  that  is,  to  give  a  false  verdict,  God 
removes  his  Shechinah  from  among  them,  as  it  is 
said,  "For  the  oppression  of  the  poor,  for  the  sighing 
of  the  needy  (caused  by  injustice),  now  I  will  rise 
(to  leave  the  Court),  saith  the  Lord."  ^  The  same 
thought  is  expressed  elsewhere  as  follows:  "When  the 
judge  sitteth  and  delivereth  just  judgement,  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  leaves  —  if  it  were  possible  to  say 
so  —  the  heaven  of  heavens  and  makes  his  Shechinah 
dwell  on  his  side,  as  it  is  said,  '  And  when  the  Lord  was 
with  the  judge'  (Judg.  2  18),  but  when  he  sees  that  the 
judge  is  a  respecter  of  persons,  he  removes  his  Shechi- 
nah, and  returns  to  heaven.  And  the  angels  say  unto 
him,  'Master  of  the  world,  what  hast  thou  done?' 
(what  is  the  reason  for  this  removal),  and  he  answers, 
'  I  have  found  that  the  judge  is  a  respecter  of  persons, 

1  See  Gen.  R.,  22  3.  2  gee  Shabbath,  139  a. 

8  See  Berachoth,  6  a.  ^  M.  T.,  82  1.  ^  M.  T.,  12  2. 


230     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

and  I  rose  from  there.' "  ^  For,  the  respecters  of 
persons  are  men  "who  have  thrown  off  the  yoke  of 
heaven  and  loaded  themselves  with  the  yoke  of  men."  ^ 
But  it  is  written,  "Ye  shall  do  no  unrighteousness  in 
judgement,  in  meteyard,"  etc.  (Lev.  19  35),  which 
teaches  "that  he  who  is  occupied  in  measuring,  weigh- 
ing, performs  the  function  of  judge,  but  if  he  gave  false 
measure,  he  is  called  iniquitous,  etc.,  .  .  .  and  causes 
the  Shechinah  to  be  removed  from  the  earth."  ^  Israel, 
indeed,  was  brought  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  on  the 
condition  that  they  accept  the  fulfilment  of  the  com- 
mandment relating  to  just  measure,  and  he  who  denies 
this  commandment  "denies  also  the  exodus  from 
Egypt"  (that  is,  God's  special  relation  to  Israel  in 
history).^ 

Something  similar  is  remarked  of  usury.  The 
Rabbinic  interpretation  is  in  reference  to  the  com- 
mandment: "Thou  shalt  not  give  him  thy  money 
upon  usury,  nor  lend  him  thy  victuals  for  increase.  I 
am  the  Lord  your  God  which  brought  you  out  of  the 
land  of  Egypt"  (Lev.  25  37-38).  Whereupon,  the  Rabbis 
from  the  proximity  of  the  two  verses  infer,  "That  he 
who  receives  upon  himself  the  yoke  of  the  command- 
ment of  usury  receives  upon  himself  the  yoke  of  heaven, 
and  he  who  removes  the  yoke  of  the  commandment  of 
usury  removes  from  himself  the  yoke  of  heaven."  And 
they  then  proceed  to  comment  on  the  latter  verse: 

1  See  Exod.  7?.,  30  24.  3  T.  K.,  91  a. 

2  Sotah,  47  b.  4  X.  A-.,  ibid. 


SIN  AS  REBELLION 


231 


"Upon  that  condition  I  brought  you  forth  out  of  the 
land  of  Egypt  '  that  you  will  receive  upon  yourselves  the 
commandment  regarding  usury.'  Because  he  who  con- 
fesses this  commandment  acknowledges  the  fact  of  the 
exodus  from  Egypt,  and  he  who  denies  it  denies  also 
the  fact  of  the  exodus  from  Egypt."  ^  It  is  evident 
from  this  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  that  the 
Rabbis  thought  that  each  Mizwah,  that  is,  the  fulfil- 
ment of  a  commandment,  had  also  a  certain  doctrinal 
value,  bearing  evidence  to  God's  relation  to  man  in 
general  and  his  historic  relation  to  Israel  in  par- 
ticular. 

The  act  of  lending  upon  usury,  which  is  also  said 
to  wxigh  as  heavily  as  murder,^  was,  as  it  seems,  con- 
sidered as  containing  also  an  ironic  implication  directed 
by  the  man  of  affairs  against  the  man  of  religion.  He 
thereby  declares  Moses  untrue  and  his  Law  false, 
saying,  "If  Moses  would  have  known  that  there  was 
so  much  profit  in  it,  he  would  never  have  written  it."  ^ 
Hence  to  witness  a  bill  in  which  interest  of  money  is 
promised,  is  as  much  as  to  give  evidence  that  the  lender 
has  denied  the  God  of  Israel.*  It  is  probably  for  the 
same  reason  that  the  Rabbis  say  in  another  place, 
"  Be  careful  not  to  be  unmerciful,  because  he  who  keeps 
back  his  compassion  from  his  neighbour  is  to  be  com- 
pared to  the  idolater  and  to  the  one  who  throws  off  the 

1  T.  AT.,  109  c.     Cf.  Exoc/.,  20  2. 

2  See  Bada  Mezia,  60  b.  ^  See  Baba  Mezia,  75  b. 
*  Baba  Mezia,  71  a.     See  also  Rashi  to  that  passage. 


232     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

yoke  of  heaven  from  himself,"  *  since  he  could  not 
act  cruelly  without  considering  the  laws  commending 
charity  and  charitableness  impracticable,  and  devoid 
of  all   divine  authority.     Indeed,  the  notion  is  that 
no  man   betrays  the  confidence  put  in  him   by  his 
neighbour  until  he  has  first  denied  the  root  (God)  ; 
that  no  man  engages  in  sin  until  he  has  first  denied 
him  who  forbade  it.^ 
The  three  cardinal  sins,  as  well  as  blasphemy  and 
]  slander,  are  called  the  evil  things.^    An  impure  thought 
is  also  described  as  evil.^     All  of  these  cause  separation 
between  man  and  God  (as  it  is  said),  "Neither  shall 
the  evil  dwell  with  thee"  (Ps.  55).     The  scoffers,  the 
liars,  the  hypocrites,  are  also  excluded  from  the  Divine 
Presence.^     Every  deed,  again,  implying  a  certain  dis- 
respect for  those  who  deserve  to  be  honoured  on  the 
ground  of  their  being  the  teachers  of  Israel,  as  well  as 
the  showing  impatience  with  the  performance  of  re- 
ligious actions,  have  the  effect  of  the  divine  presence 
being    removed    from    Israel.^     This    punishment    of 
separation,   as  it  would  seem,  is  extended  to  sin  in 
general.     "  Blessed  be  the  man,"  says  a  Jewish  teacher, 
''who  is  free  from  transgression,  and  possesses  no  sin 
or  fault,  but  is  devoted  to  good  actions,  to  the  study 
of   the  Torah,  is  low  of   knee   (meek)   and    humble. 

1  Si/re,  98  b,  2  See  Tosephta  Shebuoth,  4  so.     Cf.  T.  K.,  27  d. 

8  Sifre,  120  b.         *  See  Niddah,  i^b. 

fi  Sanhedrin,  103  a.     See  also  above,  p.  2iZ  ^eq* 

^  Berachoth,  I'j  b  and  5  b. 


SIN  AS  REBELLION  233 

The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  says  this  is  the  man  who 
dwells  in  heaven  with  him"  (Isa.  57  is).  The  wise 
man  said,  "Thy  deeds  will  bring  thee  near,  and  thy 
deeds  will  remove  thee."  How  is  this  ?  If  a  man  per- 
formed ugly  deeds  and  unworthy  actions,  his  deeds 
removed  him  from  the  Shechinah,  as  it  is  said,  "But 
your  iniquities  have  separated  between  you  and  your 
God,  and  your  sins  have  hid  his  face  from  you,  that  he 
will  not  hear"  (Isa.  592).^ 

From  the  preceding  remarks  it  is  clear  that  sin  is 
conceived  as  an  act  of  rebellion,  denying  the  root, 
that  is  the  existence  of  God,  or  his  providence,  or  his 
authority,  indeed,  excluding  him  from  the  world.  This 
extends  also,  as  we  have  seen,  to  a  sinful  thought,  in 
fact  from  the  moment  that  a  man  thinks  of  sin  it  is  as 
much  as  if  he  would  commit  treason  against  God.^  It 
is  also  described  as  contamination  and  contaminating. 
The  favourite  expression  for  sin  of  the  Seder  Elijah  is 
"  ugly  things  and  ugly  ways."  ^  This  term  is  occasionally 
used  also  by  older  Rabbis.  "  Remove  thyself,"  said  "  the 
wise  men,"  in  speaking  of  sin,  "from  ugliness  and 
from  that  which  is  like  ugliness."  ^  Another  similar 
expression  is  "dirt."  Thus,  Abraham  is  commanded 
to  leave  the  land  of  his  birth  which  is  "dirtied"  by 
idolatry.^    The  man,  again,  whose  hands  are  "dirtied" 

^  S.  £.,  p,  104.     See  above,  p.  ^3' 

2  Si/re  Zuta,  as  communicated  by  Num.  R.  8  5.     Cf.  also  Yalkut 
to  Pent.  §  701.       3  See  Friedmann's  Introduction,  ch.  10  (p.  105). 
*  Ckulliuy  44  b;  A.  R.  N.,  ^al,  text  and  note  22. 
5  MHG.,  p.  201.     See  also  Aruck  Compkhim,  s.v.  »^3tfi. 


234 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 


by  robbery  is  bidden  not  to  pray,  or  is  warned  that  his 
prayers  will  be  of  no  avail/  In  another  passage,  the 
Rabbis  speak  of  the  effect  of  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
which  is  to  purify  Israel  who  are  ''dirty"  by  sin,  through- 
out the  whole  year.^  The  verse  in  Proverbs,  "As  a 
jewel  of  gold  in  a  swine's  snout,  so  is  a  fair  woman 
which  is  without  discretion"  (ii  22)  is  illustrated  by  the 
Rabbis,  "  If  thou  puttest  a  vessel  of  gold  into  the  nose  of 
a  swine,  he  will  'dirty'  it  with  mire  and  refuse;"  so 
is  the  student  of  the  Torah  if  he  abandon  himself  to 
immorality,  he  makes  his  Torah  "dirty."  ^  More 
frequent,  we  have  the  term  of  putrefaction  and  offensive 
smell,  in  connection  with  sin.  The  sin  of  the  golden 
calf  is  described  as  a  putrefaction.  Song  of  Songs  i  12, 
is  paraphrased  in  the  Targum  as  follows:  "And  whilst 
their  master  Moses  was  still  in  heaven  to  receive  the 
two  tablets  of  stone,  and  the  Torah,  and  the  Command- 
ments, there  arose  the  wicked  men  of  that  generation 
and  made  a  calf  of  gold.  .  .  .  And  their  deeds  became 
putrefied,  and  their  evil  fame  spread  in  the  world."  "* 
The  expression  seems  especially  connected  with  rebellion 
and  disobedience.  Thus,  the  parable  of  a  later  Rabbi 
who  began  a  sermon  with  the  words,  '^And  it  came  to 
pass,  when  the  flock  gave  an  offensive  smell  and  obeyed 
not   the  words   of   its   master,   they  hated   the  shep- 

1  Exod.  R.,  22  3. 

2  See  M.  T.,  15  5.    The  right  reading  is  from  Yalkut  Machiri,  42  b. 
See  also  Tan.  rh^'2,  28. 

3  Yalkut  to  Prov.,  §  14.  *  Targum,  Song  of  Songs,  i  12. 


SIN  AS   REBELLION  235 

herds  and  the  good  leaders,  and  went  away  far  from 
them."  ' 

Sin  is  thus  a  symptom  of  corruption  and  decay  in  the 
spiritual  condition  of  man.  He  who  committed  a 
transgression  is  as  one  who  was  defiled  by  touching  the 
corpse  of  a  dead  man.^  The  thoroughly  wicked  man 
is  therefore  even  in  life  considered  as  dead.^  Nay,  the 
sin  becomes  also  a  part  of  himself  and  clings  to  him 
and  appears  with  him  together  on  the  Day  of  Judge- 
ment.'* The  presence  of  the  man  of  sin  has,  so  to  speak, 
a  sickening  and  offensive  effect  upon  everything  pure 
and  holy,  so  that  he  has  to  be  removed  from  its  neigh- 
bourhood. With  reference  to  the  scriptural  words, 
''Ye  shall  therefore  keep  all  my  statutes,  and  all  my 
judgements,  and  do  them :  that  the  land,  whither  I  bring 
you  to  dwell  therein,  spew  you  not  out"  (Lev.  20  22), 
the  Rabbis  remark,  "The  land  of  Israel  (by  reason  of 
its  hoHness)  is  not  as  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  cannot 
tolerate  men  of  transgression.  It  is  to  be  compared 
to  the  son  of  a  King,  whom  they  made  to  eat  food 
that  was  coarse  (that  is,  indigestible),  which  he  is  com- 
pelled (by  reason  of  his  delicate  constitution)  to  vomit 
out."  ^  The  voice  of  God,  which  gave  Adam  delight  and 
enjoyment,  became  a  terror  to  him,^  whilst  he  lost  also 
his  power   over  the   lower  creation  which  before  his 

1  F.  R.,  128  b.     Cf.  also  Aruch  Completum,  s.v.  rT^D. 
"^  M.  r.,  51  2.  4  Sotah,  zb. 

3  Berachoth,  1 8  a  and  b.  5  T.  K.,  93  a. 

6  P.  K.y  44  b,  and  P.  R,,  68  b ;  see  notes  for  parallels. 


236     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

sin  stood  in  awe  and  fear  of  him.  His  very  stature 
was  diminished,  and  instead  of  longing  after,  he 
feared  the  nearness  of  the  Divine  Presence/  His  face, 
originally  bearing  the  image  of  God,  became  disfigured 
and  hateful.^  Before  Israel  sinned  (by  worshipping  the 
golden  calf)  their  eyes  saw  the  glory  of  God  which  was 
surrounded  by  (seven)  walls  of  fire,  and  they  feared 
not,  as  it  is  said,  "And  the  sight  of  the  glory  of  the 
Lord  was  like  devouring  fire  on  the  top  of  the  Mount 
in  the  eyes  of  the  children  of  Israel'^  (Exod.  2417); 
but  after  they  sinned  they  could  not  even  bear  to  look 
at  the  face  of  the  middleman  (Moses),  as  it  is  said, 
"And  when  Aaron  and  all  the  children  of  Israel  saw 
Moses,  behold,  the  skin  of  his  face  shone;  and  they 
were  afraid  to  come  nigh  him"  (Exod.  34  30).^ 

As  in  the  Bible,  sin  is  described  in  Rabbinic  litera- 
ture also  as  folly.  The  Rabbinic  expression  tl^StO,  fool, 
hke  the  Biblical  term  7''DD,  has  the  original  meaning  of 
being  fleshy  and  fat.  They  who  know  not  God  are 
D''trStD,  "fools."  ^  By  the  act  of  sinning,  man  becomes 
a  fool,^  whilst  the  neglect  of  the  Torah  was  the  cause  of 
Israel's  becoming  stupid  and  fools.®  But  more  frequent 
is  the  expression  of  D''l01ty,  fools,  or  mtOtT,  folly.  Thus, 
we  read,  "he  whose  heart  is  arrogant  in  decision  is  a 
fool  (niOltl?),  a  wicked  man  and  puffed  up  in  spirit."  ' 

1  p.  K.  and  P.  P.,  ibid.     See  also  Eccles.  P.,  8  i. 

2  P.  K.,  37  ^ ;  P.  R.y  62  a ;   and  Gen.  P.,  1 1  2. 

3  P.  K.  and  P.  P.,  ibid.         *  See  Agadath  Shir  Hashirim,  p.  90. 
^  See  Targum  to  i  Kings  8  47. 

6  Sifre,  132  ^.  ''  Aboth,  4  11. 


SIN  AS  REBELLION  237 

Again,  a  discussion  as  to  God's  suffering  the  sin  of 
idolatry,  considering  that  he  could  easily  destroy  the 
objects  of  the  heathen's  worship,  the  Rabbis  answered, 
"Shall  God  cause  his  world  to  perish  because  of  the 
fools  (D^tOI^),  who  worship  also  the  sun  and  the 
moon  ?  "  ^  The  sin  of  idolatry  is  also  described  as  folly. 
The  word  D''tOti?in  Num.  25 1  is  held  to  indicate  that  Israel 
abandoned  themselves  there  to  folly  (mifitl?).^  But  it 
must  be  remarked  that  the  word  HlOltr,  or  mifit!?,  im- 
plies also  madness.  "No  man,"  the  Rabbis  say,  "would 
ever  commit  a  sin  but  for  the  fact  that  there  came  unto 
him  a  spirit  of  mtDtl?/' ^  whilst  in  another  place  we 
read  that  no  man  abandons  himself  to  immorality  if 
he  were  in  his  right  sense.^  Similarly,  it  is  said  of  the 
suspected  woman,  that  her  fall  could  only  be  explained 
as  the  effect  of  madness.^ 

The  effects  of  sin  extend  even  further.  It  has, 
apparently,  a  bhghting  influence  upon  the  world,  under 
which  even  the  righteous  suffer.  The  light  which  the 
Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  created  on  the  first  day  was 
such  that  a  man  could  see  from  one  end  of  the  world 
to  the  other,  but  it  was  concealed  because  of  the  sin 
of  Adam;  according  to  others,  because  of  the  future 
corrupt  actions  of  the  men  of  the  deluge  and  of  the  men 
of  the  Tower  of  Babel.^    Moses,  who  before  Israel 

1  Aboaak  Zarak,  54  b.  8  Sotah,  3  a. 

2  Bechoroth,  5  b  ;   Num.  R.^  20  22.  *  Nu77i.  R.,  9  6. 

5  Num.  R.,  ibid.,  reading  in  Num.  5  12  .Tifi^n  instead  of  ntStTI,  "  she 
went  mad."  6  Qgf^^  j^^^  j  i  2,  and  F.  R.,  107  a. 


238       SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

sinned  could  not  be  approached  even  by  the  archangels 
Michael  and  Gabriel,  is  after  that  in  fear  of  the  angels 
of  destruction,  Anger  and  Wrath. ^  Hillel  and  Samuel 
Hakaton  were  both  worthy  that  the  divine  presence 
should  rest  upon  them,  but  they  were  deprived  of  this 
gift  because  of  the  unworthiness  of  the  generations  in 
which  they  lived. ^  In  another  passage  we  read  that  it 
is  sin  which  made  Israel  deaf  so  that  they  could  not 
hear  the  words  of  the  Torah,  and  blind  so  that  they 
could  not  see  the  glory  of  the  Shechinah.^  The  exodus 
from  Babel  (in  the  time  of  Ezra)  was  of  such  importance 
that  such  miracles  could  have  been  performed  for  it  as 
at  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  but  sin  made  such  a  mani- 
festation of  the  divine  power  impossible.* 

More  emphatically  this  doctrine  is  taught  in  the 
following  words:  "He  who  committed  one  sin,  woe 
is  unto  him,  for  he  inclined  the  balance  both  with  re- 
gard to  himself  and  with  regard  to  the  whole  world 
toward  the  side  of  guilt,"  as  it  is  said,  "But  one 
sinner  destroys  much  good"  (Eccles.  9  is).  Thus 
by  a  single  sin  which  man  committed  he  deprived 
himself  and  the  world  from  much  good.^  But  the 
most  bitter  result  of  sin  is  that  they  (the  sinners)  are, 
as  the  Rabbis  express  it,  "weakening  the  Power  of 
the  Above";   that  is,  that  they  prevent  the  channels  of 

1  p.  K.,  45  a  and  45  ^ ;  P.  P.,  69  a.  ^  Ag.  Per.,  ch.  69. 

2  Sotah,  48  b.  *  Berachoth,  4  a. 

6  Tosephta  Kiddushin^  i  ;  Cf.  also  Eccles.  P.,  10  1.  See  also  above, 
p.  191. 


SIN  AS  REBELLION  239 

grace  to  flow  so  freely  and  fully  as  intended  by  the 
Merciful  Father.  "As  often,"  says  God,  ''I  desired 
to  do  good  unto  you,  you  weaken  the  power  from 
above  by  your  sins.  .  .  .  You  stood  at  Mount  Sinai 
and  said,  '  all  that  the  Lord  hath  said  we  will  do  and  be 
obedient'  (Exod.  247),  and  I  desired  to  do  you  good,  but 
you  altered  your  conduct  and  said  to  the  golden  calf, 
*  These  be  thy  gods,  O  Israel,  which  have  brought  thee 
out  of  the  land  of  Egypt'  (Exod.  32  8),  and  thus  weak- 
ened the  Power."  ^  In  another  place,  the  same  thought 
is  expressed  in  somewhat  different  language.  When 
Israel  accompUshes  the  will  of  God,  they  add  Power  to 
Might  (n"llD:i),  as  it  is  said,  ''And  now  let  the  power 
of  the  Lord  increase"  (Num.  14  17).  According  to 
another  Rabbi,  this  is  to  be  inferred  from  Ps.  60  M, 
which  he  translates,  "In  God  we  shall  make  our 
power."  ^  If  they  act  against  the  will  of  God  (one 
might  almost  apply  to  them),  "And  they  are  gone 
without  Power"  (Lam.  i  6). 

It  is  in  harmony  with  this  conception  that  the  Rabbis 
exclaim.  Woe  unto  the  wicked  who  turn  the  attribute 
of  mercy  into  that  of  strict  judgement !  for  everywhere 
the  Tetragrammaton  is  used  it  implies  the  attribute  of 
mercy  (as  we  can  learn  from  Exod.  34  6,  "  The  Lord, 
the  Lord  God,  merciful  and  gracious");  but  the  same 
name  of  God  is  used  in  connection  with  the  destruction 
of  the  men  of  the  generation  of  the  deluge,  where  we 

1  Si/re,  136  (5  and  137  a. 

2  p^  x.^  166  b.     See  also  above,  p.  34. 


240     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

read,  ''And  God  saw  the  wickedness  of  man  was  great 
in  the  earth"  (Gen.  65).^  In  another  place  we  read, 
"This  is  what  Isaiah  said,  'A  sinful  nation  .  .  .  they 
have  forsaken  the  Lord'  (Isa.  i  4),  they  have  made  me 
forsake  myself;  I  am  called  the  'merciful  and  gra- 
cious/ but  through  your  sins  I  have  been  made  cruel 
and  I  have  converted  my  attribute  (of  mercy)  into 
that  of  strict  judgement ;  as  it  is  said, '  The  Lord  was  an 
enemy'  (Lam.  2  5);  and  so  he  says  also  in  another 
place,  'But  they  rebelled  and  vexed  his  Holy  Spirit; 
therefore  he  was  turned  to  be  their  enemy'"  (Is.  63  10).^ 

It  is  further  to  be  remarked  that  this  abhorrence  of 
sin  is  not  entirely  confined  to  sins  committed  wilfully. 
It  extends  also  to  sins  committed  unintentionally,  as  it 
is  said,  "Also  that  the  soul  be  without  knowledge  is  not 
good,  and  he  who  is  hasty  with  his  feet  sinneth" 
(Prov.  19  2).  Again,  with  reference  to  Eccles.  12  14, 
"  For  God  shall  bring  every  work  into  judgement,  with 
every  secret  thing,  whether  it  be  good  or  it  be  evil," 
a  Rabbi  exclaimed  in  tears,  "  What  hope  is  there  for 
a  slave  whose  master  reckons  unto  him  the  uninten- 
tional sins  as  the  intentional?  "^ 

They  took  it  as  a  sign  of  carelessness,  which  might  have 
more  serious  consequences.  "Men,"  they  say,  "need 
not  feel  distressed  on  account  of  an  unintentional  sin, 

1  Gen.  R.,  33  3. 

2  Tan.  B.,  3  55  a.     Cf.  Yalkut  Machiri  to  Isaiah,  p.  7. 

3  Tan.  B.,  3  3  (5.  Cf.  Chagigah  5  a.  The  Rabbis  interpret  the 
word  07173  in  Eccles.  12  14,  that  the  sin  was  concealed  even  from  the 
man  who  committed  it. 


SIN  AS  REBELLION 


241 


except  for  the  reason  that  a  door  to  sin  is  thus  opened 
to  them,  leading  both  to  more  unintentional  and  even 
intentional  sins."  ^     They  even  expressed  their  wonder 
that  a  soul  coming  from  a  place  of  righteousness,  free 
from  sin  and  transgression,  shall  sin  through  ignorance. 
"The  soul,"  they  say,  ''is  the  child  coming  from  the 
palace  above,"  knowing  all  the  etiquette  of  the  court, 
therefore   sin   should   be   impossible   to   it,  and   if  it 
does  sin  even  through  ignorance,  it  is  also  considered 
a  transgression.^    The  same  thought  takes  a  deeper 
aspect  with  the  mystics.     Thus  Nachmanides,  in  allud- 
ing to  Lev.   42,  "If  a  soul  shall  sin  through  igno- 
rance," remarks,  "Since  thought  concerns  only  the  soul, 
and  it  is  the  soul  which  is  ignorant,  the  Scripture  men- 
tioned  Soul   here   (in    contradistinction   to   Lev.    i  2, 
where  it  speaks  of  Man),  and  the  reason  for  bringing 
a  sacrifice  for  the  ignorant  soul  is  because  all  sin  leaves 
a  taint  in  her,  causing  her  to  have  a  blemish,  and  she 
will  not  be  worthy  to  face  the  Presence  of  the  Maker, 
but  when  she  is  free  from  all  sin."  ^     The  later  mystics 
dwell  on  this  thought  at  great  length:   the  soul,  they 
say,  is  an  actual  part  of  the  divine,  as  it  is  said,  "  For 
the  Lord's  portion,  is  his  people"  (which  they  interpret 
to  mean  that   his  people  are  a  portion  of  the  Lord). 
Every  sin,  therefore,  taints  the  divine  in  man,  breaking  y 
all  communion  with  heaven.^ 

1  Tan,  B.,  ibid.  2  Xan.  B.,  ^i  a  and  i. 

3  Nachmanides,  Commentary  to  the  Pentateuch. 
*  See  Reshith  Chochmah,  Section  riKT*,  9  and  10. 


XV 


THE  EVIL    YEZER:  THE   SOURCE   OF 
REBELLION 

Sin  being  generally  conceived  as  rebellion  against 
the  majesty  of  God,  we  have  now  to  inquire  after  the 
source  or  instigator  of  this  rebellion.  In  Rabbinic 
literature  this  influence  is  termed  the  !J?^n  ^T  (Yezer 
Hara).  This  is  usually  translated  ''evil  imagination,'* 
but  the  term  is  so  obscure  and  so  variously  used  as 
almost  to  defy  any  real  definition.^ 

The  term  '^^Ti  ^it''  was  probably  suggested  by  Gen. 
6  5  and  ihid.  8  21,  where  the  noun  ^iC^  is  followed  by 
the  predicate  '^^,  evil.  Deut.  31  21  is  also  another  case 
in  point.  After  predicting  that  Israel  will  turn  to  strange 
gods  and  worship  them,  and  provoke  God  to  break 
his  covenant,  the  Scriptures  proceed  to  say:  "For  I 
know  his  Yezer  (l^lit''),"  etc.  It  is  thus  the  Yezer  gen- 
erally which  is  represented  as  something  unreliable, 
and  made  responsible  for  Israel's  apostasy.  And  it  is 
in  accordance  with  this  notion  that  Pseudo- Jonathan 
renders  it  "their  Evil  Yezer,""  though  the  Hebrew 
original  has  not  the  word  IS?*!  in  this  place.  A  par- 
allel to  this  we  have  in  Ps.  103  14,  "For  he  knows  our 

1  See  on  this  subject  Dr.  F.  C.  Porter's  article,  The  Yecer  Hara,  in 
Yale  Biblical  and  Seftiitic  Studies,  1901,  pp.  91-156. 

242 


EVIL   YEZER:  SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  243 

Yezer,'^  which  the  Targum  renders,  'Uhe  Evil  Yezer 
that  causes  to  sin."  ^  i  Chron.  28  9  and  29  I8,  in  which 
the  expression  mDtm^  'Hit''  occurs,  are  generally  under- 
stood to  mean  simply  imagination,  or  desire,  whatever- 
the  nature  of  this  desire  may  be,  good  or  evil.  But  it  is 
to  be  remarked  that  the  word  mnnS  in  28  9  is  explained 
by  some  Rabbis  to  mean  two  hearts  and  two  Yezer s  : 
the  bad  heart  with  the  Evil  Yezer,  the  good  heart  with 
the  Good  Yezer? 

The  more  conspicuous  figure  of  the  two  Yezers  is  that 
of  the  Evil  Yezer,  the  ^HH  nit\  Indeed,  it  is  not  im- 
possible that  the  expression  Good  Yezer,  as  the  antithesis 
of  the  Evil  Yezer,  is  a  creation  of  a  later  date.^ 

The  names  applied  to  the  Evil  Yezer  are  various  and 
indicative  both  of  his  nature  and  his  function.  R. 
Avira,  according  to  others  R.  Joshua  b.  Levi,  said: 
"The  Evil  Yezer  has  seven  names.  The  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  called  him  Evil  (Gen.  8  21); 
Moses  called  him  uncircumcised  (Deut.  10 16) ;  David 
called  him  unclean  (Ps.  51  12);  Solomon  called  him 
fiend  (or  enemy)  (Prov.  1 5  3i) ;  Isaiah  called  him 
stmnbling-block  (Isa.  5714);   Ezekiel  called  him  stone 

1  See,  however,  English  versions  to  this  verse  and  Baethgen  in  his 
commentary  to  the  Ps.,  iMd. 

2  See  Af.  T.,  141.  Cf.  notes  for  another  reading  :  "These  are 
two  hearts  :  the  Good  Yezer  and  the  Evil  Yezer"  See  also  below, 
255,  note  2,  and  257,  note  2. 

3  See,  however,  Mishnah  Berachoth,  9  5  ;  Sifre,  73  « ;  A.  R.  N., 
47  a  ;  Berachoth,  61  b  ;  where  it  is  clear  that  the  Tannaim  were  already 
acquainted  with  this  expression. 


244     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

(Ezek.  36  26) ;  Joel  called  him  the  hidden-one  C'^ISit)  in 
the  heart  of  man  (Joel  2  20)/ 

Other  names  applied  to  this  Yezer  are :  the  foolish 
old  king  who  accompanies  man  from  his  earUest  youth 
to  his  old  age,  and  to  whom  all  the  organs  of  man 
show  obedience ;  ^  the  spoiler  who  spares  none,  bring- 
ing man  to  fall  even  at  the  advanced  age  of  seventy  or 
eighty ;  ^  and  the  malady ^  He  is  also  called  the  strange 
god,  to  obey  whom  is  as  much  as  to  worship  idols,  and 
against  whom  Scripture  warns,  "There  shall  be  no 
strange  god  in  thee"  (Ps.  81  10),  whilst  the  words, 
''Neither  shalt  thou  prostrate  thyself  before  a  strange 
god"  (Ps.,  ibid.),  are  taken  to  mean  "appoint  not  the 
strange  god  to  rule  over  thee."  ^ 

The  activity  of  the  Evil  Yezer  is  summed  up  by 
R.  Simon  b.  Lakish,  who  said,  "Satan  and  Yezer  and 
the  Angel  of  Death  are  one,"  ®  which  view  is  confirmed 


1  SuMaA,  52  «.  Cf.  also  the  ilSIH  TliS  by  Horwitz,  p.  55,  where 
Ezekiel  is  cited  before  Isaiah,  thus  agreeing  with  the  ancient  order  of 
the  Prophets  given  in  Bada  Bathra^  14  b.  It  has  also  the  additional 
words  to  "Zephoni"  :  V^S  n«  ItTl^bD  pSST  ^^^TW  UHH  ir  HT  ("The 
Evil  Yezer  who  is  hidden  when  disguising  his  face").  With  reference 
to  the  name  stone,  see  Gen.  R.,  89  1,  where  it  would  seem  the  Evil  Yezer 
is  (with  allusion  to  Job  28  3)  identified  with  "  the  stone  of  darkness 
and  the  shadow  of  death." 

2  See  Eccles.  B.,  4  i3,  and  M.  T.,  9  5  and  ref. 

3  See  P.  K„  80  b ;    Gen.  R.,  54  1 ;  M.  T.,  34  2. 

4  See  Lev.  R.,  16  7. 

s  See/er.  JVedarim,  41  b,  and  Shabbath^  105  a. 
6  Baba  Bathra,  16  a.     See    Targum  to  Zechariah,  ch.  3,  where 
Satan  is  rendered  with  H^tDn- 


EVIL   YEZER:  SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  245 

by  the  statement  of  an  earlier  anonymous  Tannaitic 
authority:  "He  cometh  down  and  leadeth  astray;  he 
goeth  up  and  worketh  up  wrath  (accuses) ;  he  cometh 
down  and  taketh  away  the  soul."  ^  His  role  as  accuser 
is  described  in  another  place  with  the  words,  "  The  Evil 
Yezer  persuades  man  (to  sin)  in  this  world,  and  bears 
witness  against  him  in  the  future  world;"  ^  whilst  his 
function  as  Angel  of  Death  is  expressed  in  the  words, 
"He  accustoms  (or  entices)  man  to  sin  and  kills  him."  ^ 
Some  modification  of  this  thought  we  may  perceive  in 
another  statement  of  R.  Simon  b.  Lakish,  who  says, 
"  The  Yezer  of  man  assaults  him  every  day,  endeavour- 
ing to  kill  him,  and  if  God  would  not  support  him, 
man  could  not  resist  him ;  as  it  is  said,  '  The  wicked 
watcheth   the    righteous    and    seeketh    to    slay   him' 

(Ps.  37  32)."  ^ 

The  identification  of  the  Evil  Yezer  with  the  Angel 
of  Death  is  sometimes  modified  in  the  sense  of  the 
former  being  the  cause  of  death  consequent  upon  sin 
rather  than  of  his  performing  the  ofiice  of  the  execu- 
tioner. This  is  the  impression,  at  least,  one  receives 
from  such  a  passage  in  the  Mishnah  as  the  following: 
"The  evil  eye  (envy),  the  Evil  Yezer,  and  the  hatred 
of  one's  fellow-creatures  put  man  out  of  the  world."  ^ 
According  to  an  ancient  paraphrase  of  this  passage,  the 
role  of  the  Evil  Yezer  who  accosts  man  from  the  very  , 
moment  of  his  birth,  is  of  a  passive  nature,  neglecting . 

1  Bada  Bathra,  ibid.  2  Sukkah,  52  3.  ^  £xod.  R.,  30  18. 

*  Sukkah,  52  b.     Cf.  also  Kiddushin,  30  b,  ^  Aboih,  2  16. 


246     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

to  warn  him  against  the  dangers  following  upon  the 
committing  of  such  sins  as  profaning  the  Sabbath, 
the  shedding  of  blood,  and  the  abandoning  of  oneself 
to  immorality.^  A  close  parallel  to  the  passage  quoted 
above,  likewise  found  in  the  Mishnah,  is  the  following 
saying,  in  which  the  same  expression  is  used  with 
regard  to  the  consequence  of  sin.  It  reads:  "Envy, 
lust,  and  conceit  put  man  out  of  this  world."  ^ 
*'Lust"  here  apparently  corresponds  to  Evil  Yezer, 
and  as  the  context  shows,  can  only  mean  that  it  is  the 
cause  of  death.  In  another  place,  these  three  evil  im- 
pulses are  said  to  have  incited  the  serpent  to  his  in- 
vidious conversation  with  Eve,  resulting  in  her  trans- 
gressing the  first  commandment  given  to  man  and 
finally  in  death.^  The  identification  in  the  Zohar  of 
Samael  with  the  Evil  Yezer  is  probably  in  some  way 
connected  with  the  given  Rabbinic  passages,*  since  in 
another  place  the  tempting  serpent  is  said  to  have  been 
Samael  in  disguise,  originally  a  holy  angel,  but  who 
through  his  jealousy  of  man,  determined  to  bring 
about  the  latter's  fall.^ 

The  Evil  Yezer  is  also  credited  with  inflicting  other 
kinds  of  punishment  upon  man  besides  death,  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  story  of  the  Men  of  the  Great  Assembly 
in  their  effort  to  destroy  the  Yezer.     When,  perceiving 

1  A.  R.  N.,  31  3.  2  ^^^^^^  4  28.     Cf.  Abotk,  3  14. 

3  See  P.  P.  E.,  ch.  13. 

4  See  Zokar,  Gen.  41  a.  On  page  248,  ibid.,  the  Evil  Yezer  is  iderxXi' 
fied  with  the  Angel  of  Destruction  pD'^'T'JK. 

s  See  P.  R.  E.,  ibid.,  and  Pseudo-Jon.,  Gen.  3  6. 


EVIL    YEZER:  SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  247 

the  Evil  Yezer,  they  exclaimed:  ''Here  is  the  one  who 
has  destroyed  the  sanctuary,  burned  the  Temple,  mur- 
dered our  saints,  and  driven  Israel  from  their  country."  ^ 
But  it  must  be  noted  that  in  other  places  it  is  sin 
itself  that  causes  death.  "See,  my  children,"  said  the 
saint  R.  Chaninah  b.  Dosa  to  his  disciples,  "it  is  not 
the  ferocious  ass  that  kills,  it  is  sin  that  kills."  ^  Again, 
with  allusion  to  Prov.  5  22,  the  Rabbis  teach,  "As  man 
throws  out  a  net  whereby  he  catches  the  fish  of  the  sea, 
so  the  sins  of  man  become  the  means  of  entangling 
and  catching  the  sinner."  ^  It  must  be  further  noticed 
that  both  the  function  of  the  accuser  and  witness  are 
sometimes  ascribed  to  God  himself:  "He  is  God,  he 
is  the  Maker,  he  is  the  Discerner,  he  is  the  Judge, 
he  is  the  Witness,  he  is  the  Complainant."  *  Again, 
with  allusion  to  Mai.  3  5,  an  ancient  Rabbi  re- 
marked, "What  chances  are  there  for  a  slave  whose 
master  brings  him  to  judgement  and  is  eager  to  bear 
witness  against  him?"  ^  In  another  passage,  the  func- 
tion of  bearing  witness  is  ascribed  to  the  two  angels 
accompanying  man  through  life,  whilst  others  think 
that  it  is  the  soul  of  man  or  his  limbs  that  give  evi- 
dence. Nay,  the  very  stones  of  man's  abode  and  the 
beams  in  it  cry  out  against  man  and  accuse  him,  as  it 
is  said,  "For  the  stones  shall  cry  out  of  the  wall  and 
the  beam  out  of  the  timber  shall  answer  it"  (Hab.  2  11).^ 

1  Yoma,  69  d.  *  Aiofh,  4  29. 

2  Berachoth,  33  a.  ^  Chagigah,  5  «.     Cf.  P.  K.,  164  b. 

3  Midrash,  Prov.,  ch.  5.  ^  Chagigah,  16  a. 


248     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Neither  the  function  of  bearing  witness  against  man 
and  accusing  him,  nor  that  of  executing  the  judgement, 
can  thus  be  exclusively  ascribed  to  the  Evil  Yezer. 
His  main  activity  consists  in  seducing  and  tempting. 
His  ways  are  of  the  insinuating  kind,  appearing  first 
to  the  man  as  a  modest  traveller  (^^^),  then  as  a  wel- 
come guest  (irmi^),  and  ending  in  exacting  obedience 
as  the  master  of  the  house  (tl^'^i^).^  He  shows  himself 
also  more  as  an  effeminate  being  with  no  capacity  for 
doing  harm,  but  afterwards  overwhelms  with  masculine 
strength.^  The  snares  in  which  the  Evil  Yezer  en- 
tangles man  are  at  first  sight  as  insignificant  and 
vain  as  the  thin  thread  of  the  cobweb,  but  take  soon 
the  dimensions  of  the  rope,  making  it  impossible  for 
man  to  free  himself  from  it.^  In  another  place  this 
treachery  of  the  Evil  Yezer  is  compared  with  that 
of  the  dogs  in  the  city  of  Rome:  they  lie  down  be- 
fore a  baker's  shop  and  simulate  sleep;  but  when  the 
baker  in  his  security  allows  himself  to  take  a  nap,  they 
quickly  jump  up,  snatch  away  a  loaf,  and  carry  it 
away.  The  Evil  Yezer  deals  with  man  in  the  same 
way,  feigning  weakness  and  helplessness,  but  as  soon 
as  man  is  off  his  guard,  he  jumps  on  him  and  makes 
him  sin.^ 

The  man  who  is  most  exposed  to  the  allurements  of 

1  Sukkah,  52  a.     Cf.  Gen.  R.,  22  6.  2  Cen.  J?.,  ibid. 

3  See  Stikkah,  ibid.;  Sanhedrin,  99  b.    Cf.  Gen.  R.,  ibid,  and  Rabb. 
Dictionaries,  s.v.  K'SIS.     Sifre,  '^^  ^>  this  simile  is  made  of  sin  itself. 
*  See  Gen.  R.,  22  6. 


EVIL    YEZER:  SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  249 

the  Evil  Yezer  is  the  vain  one.  "  Yezer,^^  the  Rabbis 
say,  "does  not  walk  in  retired  places.  He  resorts  to 
the  middle  of  the  highroads.  When  he  sees  a  man 
dyeing  his  eyebrows,  dressing  his  hair,  lifting  his  heels, 
he  says,  'That  is  my  man!'"^  Again,  when  Simon 
the  Just  asked  a  Nazarite  of  stately  appearance, 
beautiful  eyes,  and  curly  hair,  "My  son,  why  didst 
thou  choose  to  have  thy  beautiful  hair  destroyed?" 
(the  Nazarite  having,  according  to  Num.  6  is,  to  have 
his  hair  shaved  when  the  days  of  his  separation  are 
fulfilled),  he  answered,  "I  acted  as  father's  shepherd 
in  my  town.  Once,  I  went  to  fill  the  casket  from  the 
well ;  but  when  I  saw  the  image  reflected  in  the  water, 
my  Yezer  grew  upon  me  and  sought  to  turn  me  out 
from  the  world.  Then  I  said  to  him,  'Thou  wicked 
one !  why  dost  thou  pride  thyself  with  a  world  which 
is  not  thine;  thou,  whose  destiny  is  to  become  worm 
and  maggots?  I  take  an  oath  that  I  will  have  thee 
shaved  in  the  service  of  heaven!'"  ^  It  is  interesting 
to  notice  in  passing  that  this  instantaneous  resistance 
to  the  Evil  Yezer  is  also  recommended  in  another  place. 
"He  that  spoils  his  Yezer  by  tender  and  considerate 
treatment  (that  is,  allows  him  slowly  to  gain  dominion 
over  himself  without  rebuking  him)  will  end  in  becom- 
ing his  slave."  ^ 

1  Ggn.  R.,  22  6.  Cf.  MHG.,  p.  119,  reading  DD^Dtt  for  t'tttTbtt, 
Cf.  also  Zohar,  i  190  (Gen.  39  12),  where  the  vanity  of  fine  clothes  is 
added. 

2  Sifre,  9  b  ;  Nedarhuy  9  b  ;  Num.  7?.,  10  7  and  references.  Cf. 
also  Yoma,  35  b.  3  q^^^  ^_^  ^-^^-^^     qi  Rashi  to  Prov.  29  21. 


250     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC    THEOLOGY 

The  two  great  passions  which  the  Yezer  plays  most 
V  upon  are  the  passions  of  idolatry  and  adultery.  The 
latter  is  called  the  H'T'D!?"!  i<1T,  the  passion  of  sin ;  just 
as  miCD  in  many  places  means  charity,  so  does  n*!"'^^ 
in  a  large  number  of  passages  refer  to  immorality.^  The 
passion  of  idolatry,  though  once  more  general  and 
more  deeply  rooted  in  the  nature  of  man  than  any  other 
passion,  is  stated,  however,  to  have  already  disappeared 
from  the  world  through  the  work  of  the  Men  of  the 
Great  Assembly  who  prayed  for  its  extinction.^ 

Of  the  two  passions,  it  is  pointed  out  that  the  passion 
of  idolatry  was  (once)  even  stronger  than  that  of 
adultery;  the  former  having  such  a  power  over  man 
as  to  induce  him  to  have  his  sons  and  daughters  sacri- 
ficed to  idols.  It  knows  no  shame,  performing  its 
office  both  in  public  and  in  private,  and  sparing  no 
class  of  society,  enlisting  in  its  service  both  small  and 
great,  old  and  young,  men  and  women.^  It  is  worth 
noting  that  the  desire  for  acquiring  wealth  is  not 
counted  by  the  Rabbis  among  the  grand  passions, 
though  it  is  stated  in  another  place  that  it  is  the  sin  of 
dishonesty  in  money  transactions  under  which  the 
great  majority  of  mankind  is  labouring.  It  is  there 
further  remarked  that  the  sin  of  immorality  involves 
only  the  minority,  whilst  none  escape  the  sin  of  slander- 

iSee  Levy's  Rabb.  Dictionary,  s.v. 

2  See  Yo?na,  69  d.     See  also  Midrash  Cant.,  7  8.     Cf.  also  Jer.  Abo- 
dak  Zarah,  40  c. 
^  MHG.,^.  120. 


EVIL    YEZER:  SOURCE   OF   REBELLION  251 

ing,  or  at  least  of  invidious  talk  against  their  neighbours.* 
Scepticism  is  another  means  by  which  the  Evil  Yezer 
reaches  man.  Sometimes  he  questions  the  nature  of 
the  Deity,  ascribing  to  God  corporeal  qualities,  such 
as  to  be  in  need  of  food ;  ^  at  others,  his  attacks  are 
directed  against  the  Biblical  precepts  relating  to  the 
dietary  laws,  and  certain  ritual  observances  known 
under  the  name  of  D^plH  (statutes),  the  reason  for 
which  is  unknown.^  The  Yezer  is  especially  anxious 
to  show  him  that  the  ceremonies  and  the  cult  of  other 
religions  are  more  beautiful  than  those  of  the  Jew.'* 
Sometimes  he  even  deigns  to  bring  evidence  from 
Scripture,  as  in  the  case  of  Abraham.  When  Abra- 
ham was  on  his  way  to  Mount  Moriah  to  sacrifice  his 
son  Isaac,  Satan  met  him  and  said,  "Old  man,  where 
art  thou  going?"  He  answered,  "I  am  going  to  fulfil 
the  will  of  my  Father  in  Heaven."  Then  Satan  said 
unto  him,  ''What  did  he  tell  thee?"  Abraham  an- 
swered, "To  bring  my  son  to  him  as  a  burnt -offering." 
Thereupon  Satan  said,  "That  an  old  man  like  thee 
should  make  such  a  mistake !  His  attention  was  only 
to  lead  thee  astray  and  to  tire  thee !  Behold,  it  is 
written,  'Whoso  sheds  man's  blood,  by  man  his  blood 
shall  be  shed'  (Gen.  96).  Thou  art  the  man  who 
bringest  mankind  under  the  wings  of  the  Shechinah. 

^  Bada  Bathra,  165  a. 

2  See  Tan.  B.,  4  48  b.     See  also  below,  p.  298. 

3  See  T.  K.y  86  a.     See  also  P.  R.,  64  a,  text  and  notes. 

*  T.  K.,  ibid.,  IJ^tTX:  D'K3  Urhz\  apparently  relating  to  matters  of 
cult. 


252      SOME  ASPECTS  OF   RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

If  thou  wilt  sacrifice  thy  son,  they  will  all  leave  thee 
and  call  thee  murderer."  ^     The  name  Satan  here  is 

I  identical  with  the  Evil  Yezer,  who,  as  in  the  case  of 
Job,  performs  the  office  of  the  informer  against  Abra- 
ham. Yezer,  indeed,  shows  special  anxiety  for  man's 
duty  to  his  family.  Thus  when  man  "loves  in  his 
heart "  to  do  a  m^l::  (give  charity),  the  Evil  Yezer  in 
him  says,  "  Why  should  you  do  a  HlitJ:  and  diminish 
thy  property?  Rather  than  to  give  to  strangers,  give 
to  thy  children."  ^  Sometimes  he  appeals  to  his  vanity, 
telling  man,  for  instance,  not  to  pay  a  visit  of  condo- 
lence, because  he  is  too  great  a  man.^  When  all  fails, 
he  will  appeal  to  the  mercy  of  God,  saying  to  man, 
"Sin  and  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  will  forgive 
thee."  ' 

The  beginning  of  the  association  of  the  Evil  Yezer 
with  man  is  a  controverted  point  among  the  Rabbis.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  the  Evil  Yezer  arises  with  the  act  of 
cohabitation.  Thus  R.  Reuben  b.  Astrobolis  expresses 
himself  to  the  effect:  How  can  man  keep  aloof  from 
the  Evil  Yezer  considering  that  the  very  act  of  gen- 
eration came  through  the  strength  of  the  Evil  Yezer, 
constantly  gaining  in  strength  till  the  time  of  his  birth 
arrives?     The  Evil  Yezer  dwells  at  the  opening  of  his 

''   heart.^     This  is  in  accordance  with  the  view  of   R. 

1  MUG.,  pp.  304  and  305.     Cf.  notes  3  and  4. 

2  Exod.  R.,  36  3.  3  p^  R^^  150  «.  4  Ckagigah,  16  a, 

5  A.  R.  JV.,  32  d,  according  to  the  text  given  in  the  Note  22.  Cf. 
MUG.,  p.  106. 


EVIL   YEZER:  SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  253 

Acha,  who,  with  reference  to  Ps.  517,  expressed  him- 
self to  the  effect  that  in  sexual  intercourse  even  the 
saint  of  saints  cannot  well  escape  a  certain  taint 
of  sin,  the  act  of  cohabitation  being  performed  more 
with  the  purpose  of  satisfying  one's  animal  appe- 
tite than  with  the  intention  of  perpetuating  the  human 
species.^  Very  near  to  this  notion,  though  not  quite 
identical,  is  that  which  teaches  that  the  Evil  Yezer 
enters  into  man  when  he  is  still  in  the  embryonic  state ;  ! 
but  this  seems  to  have  been  an  isolated  opinion,  having 
been  abandoned  by  the  very  authorities  who  taught  it 
first.  This  can  be  seen  from  the  following  passage,  which 
is  to  the  effect  that  Antoninus  put  the  question  to  R. 
Judah  the  Saint,  ''When  does  the  Evil  Yezer  begin  his 
rule  over  man :  from  the  moment  of  his  formation  into 
bones,  muscles,  and  flesh,  or  from  that  of  his  birth?" 
R.  Judah  was  inclined  to  the  former  view,  to  which 
Antoninus  objected  on  the  ground  that  we  have  no 
proof  of  any  malign  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  embryo. 
Thereupon  R.  Judah  declared  himself  in  favour  of  the 
latter  view,  and  in  a  public  lecture  made  the  statement, 
"This  fact  Antoninus  taught  me,  and  Scripture  is  in 
his  support;  as  it  is  said,  'At  the  door  (of  man's  enter- 
ing the  world)  the  sin  lieth.'"^  Likewise  isolated  is 
another  opinion,  which  is  to  the  effect :   that  the  child 

1  Lev.  R.,  14  5.     The  sense  of  the  passage  is  not  very  clear.     See 
also  Yalktit  Machiri.  Ps.  to  this  verse  and  cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Am.,  3  144. 

2  See  Sanhedrin,  91  b.      Cf.  Ge7t.  R.,  34  6,  and /(jr.  Berachoth,  6  d. 
Cf.  Low's  Lebensalter,  p.  64  seq. 


2  54     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

of  six,  seven,  eight,  and  nine  years  sins  not ;  only  from 
the  age  of  ten  he  begins  to  grow  (or  perhaps  to  magnify, 
or  to  cultivate)  the  Evil  Yezer}  The  general  notion 
seems  to  be  the  one  accepted  by  R.  Judah,  which  is 
that  the  Evil  Yezer  accompanies  man  from  his  earliest 
-.childhood  to  his  old  age,  by  reason  of  which  he  enjoys 
a  priority  of  not  less  than  thirteen  years  over  the  Good 
Yezer,  who  only  makes  his  appearance  at  the  age  of 
puberty. 

It  is  on  account  of  this  seniority  that  he  establishes 
a  certain  government  over  man  and  is  thus  called  "the 
old  foolish  king."  ^  It  is  true  that  children  enjoy  a 
certain  immunity  from  sin,  on  account  of  their  unde- 
veloped physical  condition,  so  that  the  Rabbis  speak 
of  the  breath  of  the  school  children,  in  which  there  is 
no  (taint  of)  sin.  Indeed,  the  death  of  children  is 
mostly  explained  as  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of 
their  parents  or  their  grown-up  contemporaries.^ 
Yet,  they  are,  as  already  indicated,  not  quite  free 
from  the  Evil  Yezer,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  accosts 
man  from  his  earliest  childhood.  "Even  in  his  state 
as  minor,  man's  thoughts  are  evil."  ^     As  it  would  seem, 

1  See  Tan.  n^tr«-in,  7. 

2  See  A.  J?.  N.,  ^2  b  ;  Eccles.  R.,  4  13  and  9  15 ;  Nedarim,  32  b ; 
M.,  T.  9  5,  and  Taft.  B.,  i,  102  a  and  b.  From  Tan.  B.,  i  63  a,  it  would 
seem  that  it  is  at  the  age  of  fifteen  that  the  effects  of  the  Evil  Yezer 
become  visible.  The  reading  is,  however,  not  certain.  See  Note  5, 
ibid.,  on  the  various  parallel  passages  and  the  different  readings. 

3  See  Shabbath,  119  b  and  33  b.  Cf.  Gen.  R.,  58  2  and  commenta- 
ries.    See  also  above,  p.  193,  below,  p.  311. 

^Jer.  Berachoth,  6  b. 


EVIL   YEZER:  SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  255 

it  is  in  the  aspect  of  ''fool"  (stupid  and  wanting  in  cau- 
tion and  foresight)  that  the  influence  of  the  Evil  Yezer 
makes  itself  felt  in  the  child.  "  From  the  moment  man 
is  born,  the  Evil  Yezer  cleaves  to  him."  And  this  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  fact:  If  a  man  should 
attempt  to  bring  up  an  animal  to  the  top  of  the  roof, 
it  will  shrink  back;  but  the  child  has  no  hesitation  in 
running  up,  with  the  result  of  tumbUng  down  and 
injuring  himself.  If  he  sees  a  conflagration,  he  will 
run  to  it;  if  he  is  near  burning  coals,  he  will  stretch 
out  his  hands  to  gather  them  (and  be  burnt).  Why 
(this  audacity  and  want  of  caution),  if  not  because  of 
the  Evil  Yezer  that  was  put  in  him?^ 

The  seat  both  of  the  Evil  and  the  Good  Yezer  is  in 
the  heart,  the  organ  to  which  all  the  manifestations  of 
reason  and  emotion  are  ascribed  in  Jewish  literature.^ 

1  See  A,  R.  N.,  32  a,  32  b,  text  and  notes. 

2  The  importance  of  this  organ  in  Rabbinic  literature  will  be  more 
clearly  seen  by  the  reader  through  reproducing  here  the  following 
passage  in  Eccles.  R.,  i  I6,  omitting  such  clauses  as  seem  to  be  mere 
repetition,  as  well  as  the  Scriptural  verses  cited  there  in  corroboration 
of  each  clause.  Cf.  P.  K.,  124a  and  <5,  text  and  notes:  "The  heart 
sees,  the  heart  hears,  the  heart  speaks,  the  heart  walks,  the  heart  falls, 
the  heart  stops,  the  heart  rejoices,  the  heart  weeps,  the  heart  is  com- 
forted, the  heart  grieves,  the  heart  is  hardened,  the  heart  faints,  the 
heart  mourns,  the  heart  is  frightened,  the  heart  breaks,  the  heart  is 
tried,  the  heart  rebels,  the  heart  invents,  the  heart  suspects  (or  criti- 
cises), the  heart  whispers,  the  heart  thinks,  the  heart  desires,  the 
heart  commits  adultery,  the  heart  is  refreshed,  the  heart  is  stolen,  the 
heart  is  humbled,  the  heart  is  persuaded,  the  heart  goes  astray,  the 
heart  is  troubled,  the  heart  is  awake,  the  heart  loves,  the  heart 
hates,  the  heart  is  jealous,  the  heart  is  searched,  the  heart  is  torn, 


256     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

It  is  in  this  heart,  with  its  manifold  functions,  that 
the  Evil  Yezer  sets  up  his  throne.  The  Evil  Yezer  re- 
sembles a  "fly"  (according  to  others,  a  ''wheat"  grain), 
established  between  the  two  openings  (valves)  of  the 
heart. ^  More  minute  are  the  mystics,  who  describe 
the  heart  as  having  two  cavities,  the  one  full  of  blood, 
which  is  the  seat  of  the  Evil  Yezer;  the  other  empty, 
where  the  Good  Yezer  dwells.^  Somewhat  different  is 
the  statement,  "Two  reins  are  in  man :  the  one  counsels 
him  for  good,  the  other  for  evil,"  and  they  proceed  to 
say  it  is  evident  the  former  is  on  the  right  side,  the  latter 
on  the  left  side;  as  it  is  said,  "The  heart  of  the  wise 
man  is  on  his  right,  the  heart  of  the  fool  is  on  his  left" 
(Eccles.  10  2).^  The  reins  in  this  case  seem  to  have  an 
auxiliary  function.  "The  reins  counsel  and  the  heart 
understands  (to  decide  for  action)."  It  should,  how- 
ever, be  noted  that  in  another  place,  this  very  verse  is 

the  heart  meditates,  the  heart  is  like  fire,  the  heart  is  Hke  stone,  the 
heart  repents,  the  heart  is  warned,  the  heart  dies,  the  heart  melts,  the 
heart  accepts  words  (of  comfort),  the  heart  accepts  the  fear  (of  God), 
the  heart  gives  thanks,  the  heart  covets,  the  heart  is  obstinate,  the  heart 
is  deceitful,  the  heart  is  bribed,  the  heart  writes,  the  heart  schemes, 
the  heart  receives  commandments,  the  heart  does  wilfully,  the  heart 
makes  reparation,  the  heart  is  arrogant." 

1  Berachoth,  6 1  a.  The  first  view,  which  is  that  of  Rab,  is  derived 
from  Eccles.  lo  i,  "  Dead  flies  cause  the  precious  oil  of  the  apothecary 
to  become  stinking  and  foaming ;  so  doth  a  little  folly,  him  that  is 
valued  for  wisdom  and  honour."  The  second,  ascribed  to  Samuel,  is 
a  play  on  the  word  nXlon  (Gen.  47)=  .TtDPf.  This  latter  interpreta- 
tion is  probably  connected  with  the  legend  maintaining  that  the  Tree 
of  Knowledge  grew  wheat  (^Berachoth,  op  a). 

2  Zohar,  Exod.,  107  a.  ^  See  Berachoth,  ibid. 


EVIL   YEZER:  SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  257 

interpreted  to  mean  that  the  wise  man's  heart  on  the 
right  is  the  Good  Yezer,  which  is  placed  on  the  right 
of  man;  and  the  fool's  heart  to  his  left  is  the  Evil 
Yezer,  which  is  placed  to  his  left.^  We  are  thus  brought 
to  the  notion  identifying  the  two  Yezers  with  the  two 
hearts,  of  which  the  Rabbis  speak  occasionally.  What 
is  the  meaning,  they  say,  of  the  verse,  "For  the  Lord 
searcheth  all  the  hearts"?  (i  Chron.  28  9).  These  are 
the  two  hearts  and  the  two  Yezers :  the  bad  heart  with 
the  Evil  Yezer,  and  the  good  heart  with  the  Good 
YezerJ^  Indeed,  the  angels,  who  have  only  one  heart, 
are  free  from  the  Evil  Yezer,  a  blessing  to  which  Israel 
will  attain  only  in  the  Messianic  times.^  Therefore, 
man  is  bidden  not  to  have  two  hearts  when  he  prays, 
one  directed  to  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  and  the 
other  occupied  with  worldly  thoughts ;  just  as  the  priests 
are  bidden  not  to  have  two  hearts,  one  directed  to  the 
Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  and  the  other  directed  to 
something  else,  when  they  are  performing  their  sacri- 
ficial rites.*  Indeed,  the  pious  generation  of  the 
prophetess  Deborah  had  only  one  heart,  directed 
towards  their  Father  in  Heaven.^  The  same  thought 
is  expressed  in  different  words  in  another  place :  Moses 

1  Num.  R.^  22  9. 

2  See  above,  p.  243,  note  2  and  reference  there  to  a  differing  read- 
ing. To  this  should  be  added  Midrash  Prov.,  12,  where,  with  reference 
to  Ps.  7  10,  it  is  distinctly  remarked,  "  Has  a  man  two  hearts?  But  by 
these  are  meant,  the  Good  Yezer  and  the  Evil  Yezer.''* 

3  Gen.  R.,  48  11. 

4  Tan.,  Knn,  I  and  2.       Cf.  Tan.  B.,  5  23  ^.        &  Megillah,  14  a. 


258     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

said  to  Israel,  "  Remove  the  Evil  Yezer  from  your  hearts, 
so  that  ye  may  be  all  in  one  fear  of  God  and  in  one 
counsel  to  serve  before  the  Omnipresent.  As  he  is 
alone  in  this  world,  so  shall  your  worship  of  him  be 
only  to  him  (single-hearted),"  as  it  is  said,  '' Circum- 
cise therefore  the  foreskin  of  thy  heart."  ^ 

The  loose  manner  in  which  heart  and  Evil  Yezer  are 
interchangeably  used  in  the  foregoing  passage,  suggest 
the  close  affinity  between  the  two,  as  indeed,  heart 
sometimes  stands  for  Yezer?  "The  eyes  and  the  heart 
are  the  agents  of  sin,"  but  as  it  is  pointed  out  by  an 
ancient  Rabbi,  the  first  impulse  comes  from  the  heart, 
the  eyes  following  the  heart. ^  There  is  a  clean  heart  for 
which  the  Psalmist  prays  (51  12),  and  there  is  the  con- 
taminated heart  to  which  the  Evil  Yezer  owes  the  name 
of  "unclean."  ^  Again,  it  is  the  heart  that  brings  the 
righteous  to  Paradise,  it  is  the  heart  that  hurls  down 
the  wicked  to  Hell,  as  it  is  said,  "  Behold,  my  servants 
shall  sing  for  joy  of  heart,  but  ye  shall  cry  for  sorrow 
of  heart''  (Is.  65  u).^  We  must,  however,  not  press 
this  point  too  much  so  as  to  identify  the  heart  with  the 
Evil  Yezer,  for  not  only  have  the  Rabbis,  as  we  have 

1  T.  K.,  33  d.     See  above,  i6o. 

2  See  Sukkah,  52  <z  (heart  of  stone),  and  cf.  above,  243.  In  Pseudo- 
Jonathan  the  isb  is  in  most  cases  rendered  with  i<"lS£\  Cf.  Exod.  4 
21;  73;  13  and  14;  8  15.28;  9  7.34;  101.20.  27;  11  10.  Deut.  5  26; 
II  16;   29  25;   30  6. 

^  See/<?r.  Berachoih,  3  c\   Sifre,  35  a^  and  Num.  7?.,  17  6. 

*  See  above,  p.  243,  and  reference  given  there  to  Stikkah,  52  a. 

^  M.  T.y  119  6  (146^). 


EVIL    YEZER:   SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  259 

seen,  assigned  to  it  the  seat  of  the  Good  Yezer,  but  they 
have  even  declared  it  as  the  abode  of  wisdom.^  The 
good  heart,  again,  is  the  most  desired  possession.^ 
In  the  later  literature,  the  heart  is  described  as  out- 
weighing all  the  other  organs  of  man,  hatred  and  love 
having  their  seat  in  the  heart;  as  it  is  said,  ''Thou 
shalt  not  hate  thy  brother  in  thine  heart"  (Lev.  19  17), 
whilst  it  is  also  said,  "And  thou  shalt  love  the  Lord, 
thy  God,  with  all  thy  heart"  (Deut.  65).^  It  is  also 
maintained  that  the  heart  is  purer  than  anything  else, 
and  that  everything  good  proceeds  from  it.^  All  that 
the  heart  is  accused  of  is  inconsistency.  God  says, 
"Two  hundred  and  forty-eight  organs  have  I  created 
in  man;  all  of  these  keep  in  the  same  manner  as  I 
have  created  them,  except  the  heart;"  (and)  so  said 
Jeremiah,  "The  heart  changeth  from  moment  to 
moment.  It  alters  itself  and  perverts  itself."  ^  These 
changes  apparently  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
tenant  who  gets  possession  of  the  heart.  "As  often  as 
the  words  of  the  Torah  appear  and  find  the  chambers 
of  the  heart  free,  they  enter  and  dwell  therein.  The 
Evil  Yezer  has  no  dominion  over  these,  and  no  man 
can  remove  them."  ^ 

The  heart  is  thus  not  in  itself  corrupt;   at  least,  not 
more  corrupt   than  any  other  organ.     Indeed,  when 

1  Midrash  Prov.,  ch.  i.  3  n^  j^^^  j;/,^*j  nvmX. 

2  See  Aboth,  119.  4  Zohar,  Num.,  225  a. 
^  See  Ag.  Ber.,  ch.  2.     Cf.  Jeremiah,  1 7  19. 

^  A.  R.  N.^i^b',  Midrash  Prov.,  ch.  24. 


26o     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

man  is  under  the  incitement  of  sin,  all  his  members 
are  obedient  to  the  Evil  Yezer,  who  is  king  over  man's 
two  hundred  and  forty-eight  members;  whilst  when  he 
makes  an  effort  to  perform  good  work,  they  all  show 
laziness  and  reluctance.^  Again,  when  the  Evil  Yezer 
lays  siege  to  man,  it  is  all  the  members,  not  the  heart  in 
particular,  that  act  as  auxiliaries.^  It  is  only  because  of 
the  heart's  various  functions,  as  pointed  out  above, 
that  it  is  more  often  liable  to  be  enlisted  in  the  service 
of  the  Evil  Yezer  than  any  other  organ,  and  therefore 
more  blamed  than  any  other  part  of  the  human  body, 
but  not  on  account  of  a  special  depravity  attaching  to 
it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  heart  in  this  respect  is  only 
synonymous  with  soul  in  the  Bible,  where  it  is  the  tr£3 
which  commits  sin,  and  even  the  Rabbis  occasionally 
speak  of  the  "soul  of  man,"  with  its  greed  after  wealth 
(even  when  acquired  by  dishonest  means)  and  its 
tendency  towards  lust.^  Indeed,  according  to  the 
Rabbis,  Scripture  is  astonished  that  the  soul  coming 
from  a  place  where  there  is  no  sin  should  sin,  but 
nevertheless,  the  fact  is  accepted  that  it  shares  in  sin 
as  much  as  the  body,  though  the  body  comes  from 
a  village  and  the  soul  comes  from  the  court  and  is 
well  acquainted  with  the  etiquette  of  the  court.  But 
it  is  this  very  fact  which  makes  this  sin  of  the  soul 
less  excusable;  and  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  says 

1  A.  R.  N.,  32  a  ;   MHG.,  p.  109. 

2  Nedarim,  32  b. 

8  Mishnah  Makkoth,  end.     See  also  Sifrcy  125  a. 


EVIL    YEZER:   SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  261 

to  the  soul,  ''  All  that  I  have  produced  in  the  first  six 
days  of  creation  I  have  produced  for  thy  sake,  but  thou 
didst  rob,  sin  and  commit  violence.  .  .  ."  ''  But  it 
is  impossible  for  the  body  to  be  without  the  soul,  and 
if  there  is  no  soul  there  is  no  body,  and  if  there  is 
no  body  there  is  no  soul ;  they  sin  together ;  (hence) 
'the  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die'  (Ezekiel 
18  20)."  1 

The  passages  indicating  a  tendency  to  identify  the 
heart  (or  the  soul)  with  the  Evil  Yezer  have  further  to 
be  qualified  by  other  Rabbinic  statements  looking  for 
the  source  of  sin  to  some  force  outside  of  man.     For 

1  See  Tan.  B.,  $4:  a  and  6,  and  Ecc/es.  R.,  6  6.  The  simile  of  the 
villager  and  the  courtier  will  be  better  understood  by  the  following 
Rabbinic  passages,  on  which  it  was  probably  based :  Mechilta  36  b  and 
Mechilta  of  R.  Simon,  p.  59,  where  Antoninus  asks  Rabbi,  "  Considering 
that  the  man  is  dead  and  the  body  in  a  state  of  decay,  whom  does  God 
bring  to  judgement?  "  Whereupon  Rabbi  answered  him,  "  Before  thou 
asketh  me  about  the  body  which  is  i??ipure,  ask  me  about  the  soul  which 
is  pure:'  This  is  followed  by  the  well-known  parable  of  the  blind  and 
the  lame,  who  robbed  the  garden  of  the  king,  etc.  "Pure"  and 
"  impure  "  apparently  stand  here  for  lasting  and  decaying.  It  should 
be  remarked  that  the  words  in  italics  are  missing  in  the  parables  of 
Sanhedrin,  gi  a  ;  Lev.  i?.,  4  5  ;  Tan.  B.,  3  4  5,  and  Tan.  ^'^^p^^  6.  In 
Sifre,  132  a,  man  is  defined  as  the  only  creature  whose  soul  is  from 
heaven  and  his  body  from  the  earth.  If  he  obeyed  the  Torah  and  per- 
formed the  will  of  his  father  in  heaven,  he  is  like  one  of  the  creatures 
above  ;  if  he  did  not  obey  the  Torah  and  the  will  of  his  father  in  heaven, 
he  is  like  one  of  the  creatures  below.  Closely  corresponding  with  it 
is  the  passage  in  Gen.  R.,  8  11,  where  also  man  is  described  as  a  com- 
bination of  those  above  (angels)  and  those  below  (animals).  See 
also  Gen.  R.,  14  2  and  27  4  ;  Chagigah,  16  a  ;  and  ^.  R.  N.,  55  a,  text 
and  notes.  See  also  Tan.  B.,  i  15  b.  Cf.  also  above,  81  and  241,  and 
below,  285. 


262     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

apart  from  what  we  may  call  the  mythological  view, 
identifying  the  Evil  Yezer  with  the  serpent,  or  Samael, 
and  of  which  some  other  names  of  the  Evil  Yezer  in 
Rabbinic  literature  are  to  be  considered  as  reminiscent 
at  least,^  the  comparison  of  the  Yezer^s  visitations  to 
man  with  the  passing  traveller  and  other  similar 
passages  ^  point  also  to  the  fact  that  the  Rabbis  did 
not  entirely  view  man  in  the  light  of  a  corrupt  being. 
We  have  further  to  note  that  the  Evil  Yezer  is, 
as  indicated  above,  more  conspicuous  in  the  Jewish 
literature  than  the  Good  Yezer,  whilst  by  Yezer,  with- 
out any  further  specification,  is  often  meant  the 
Evil  Yezer.^  This  would  suggest  that  there  is  in  fact 
only  one  Yezer,  the  Evil  Yezer,  and  we  may  further 
conclude  that  it  is  man  himself,  by  his  natural  tendency, 
that  represents  the  Good  Yezer.  Accordingly,  when  he 
commits  evil,  he  acts  under  certain  impulses  not  ex- 
actly identical  with  his  own  natural  self.  The  Rabbis 
further  speak  of  the  leaven  in  the  dough,  preventing  man 
from  doing  his  (God's)  will.''  This  metaphor  is  taken 
by  some  as  indicating  some  inner  physical  defect  in  hu- 
man nature,  but  in  another  place  forming  a  parallel 
passage  to  the  one  just  quoted,  the  leaven  in  the 
dough  appears  together  with  the  subjection  to  for- 
eign governments  that   make  compliance  with  God's 

1  See  above,  p.  243.  2  ggg  above,  p.  248. 

3  See  e.g.  Sukkah,  52  b ;  Gen.  R.,  59  6  ;  Aboth,  i  4  ;  Sifre,  74  a;   Tar- 
gum  to  Ps.  4  6. 

^  Jer.  Berachothf  7  d.     See  below,  p.  265,  where  the  passage  is  given. 


EVIL    YEZER:   SOURCE  OF  REBELLION  263 

will  hard,  if  not  impossible.^  It  is  thus  a  certain 
quasi-external  agency  which  is  made  responsible  for 
sin,  whilst  man  himself,  by  his  spontaneous  nature, 
is  only  too  anxious  to  live  in  accordance  with  God's 
commandments. 

1  Berachothy  17  a. 


XVI 


MAN'S  VICTORY  BY  THE   GRACE   OF    GOD, 
OVER  THE  EVIL  YEZER  CREATED  BY  GOD 

The  opinions  recorded  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
some  of  which  suggest  the  placing  of  the  Evil  Yezer 
outside  of  man,  and  the  further  fact  that  he  is  de- 
scribed as  the  source  of  rebellion,  must,  however,  not 
be  pressed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  give  the  Evil  Yezer 
an  independent  existence,  representing  a  power  at 
warfare  with  God.  As  is  so  often  the  case  in  Jewish 
theology,  the  Rabbis,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
managed  to  steer  between  the  dangerous  courses,  never 
allowing  the  one  aspect  of  a  doctrine  to  assume  such 
proportions  as  to  obscure  all  other  aspects.  First,  it 
must  be  noted  that  the  Evil  Yezer,  whatever  its  nature, 
is,  as  is  everything  else  in  the  universe,  a  creature  of 
God.  Thus  with  reference  to  Gen.  2  7,  a  Rabbi  inter- 
prets the  fact  of  the  word  'niC''''1  being  written  with 
two  Yods  to  indicate  that  God  created  man  with  two 
Yezer s:  the  Good  Yezer  and  the  Evil  Yezer}  For 
"God  hath  also  set  the  one  against  the  other  "  (Eccles. 

^  Gen.  R.y  147;  Berachoth,  61  a  and  references.  Cf.  also  Pseudo- 
Jonathan,  Gen.  2  14.  Cf.  also  below,  p.  313,  the  quotation  given  there 
from  M.  T.,  32  4. 

264 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL   YEZER  265 

7 :  14),  which  verse  Rabbi  Akiba  explains  to  mean  that 
God  created  the  righteous  and  God  created  the  wicked.^ 
In  a  later  semi-mystical  Midrash,  the  same  thought  is 
repeated,  "God  created  the  world  in  pairs,  the  one  in 
contrast  to  the  other,"  as  life  and  death,  peace  and 
strife,  riches  and  poverty,  wisdom  and  folly,  the  right- 
eous and  the  wicked.^  This  thought  was  so  familiar 
to  the  people  that  the  Rabbis  tell  a  story  of  one  of  their 
colleagues  who  overheard  a  young  girl  praying  thus: 
''Lord  of  the  universe!  Thou  hast  created  paradise, 
thou  hast  created  hell,  thou  hast  created  the  righteous, 
thou  hast  created  the  wicked.  May  it  be  thy  will  that 
the  sons  of  men  should  not  be  ensnared  by  me ! "  that  is, 
that  she  might  not  prove  the  opportunity  for  the  wicked.^ 
We  have  already  referred  to  the  metaphor  of  the 
leaven  in  the  dough  as  applied  to  the  Evil  Yezer. 
The  metaphor  occurs  in  a  Rabbinic  prayer  running 
thus:  "May  it  be  thy  will,  O  my  God,  and  the  God  of 
my  fathers,  that  thou  breakest  the  yoke  of  the  Evil 
Yezer  and  re  mo  vest  him  from  our  hearts ;  for,  thou  hast 
created  us  to  do  thy  will,  and  we  are  in  duty  bound  to 
do  thy  will.  Thou  art  desirous  and  we  are  desirous. 
But  who  prevents  it  ?  The  leaven  in  the  dough.  It 
is  revealed  and  it  is  known  before  thee  that  we  have 
not  the  strength  to  resist  him;  but  may  it  be  thy  will, 

1  Chagigah,  15  ^.  2  gee  Midrash  Temurah. 

3  See  Sotah,  22  a.  Cf.  Edeles.  The  parallel,  however,  in  Baba 
Bathra,  16  a  (cf.  below,  p.  273),  shows  that  by  creation  of  the  wicked 
is  meant  creation  of  Evil  Yezer. 


266     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

O  Lord  my  God,  and  the  God  of  my  fathers,  that  thou 
wilt  remove  him  from  us,  subject  him,  so  that  we  may 
do  thy  will  as  our  will,  with  a  perfect  heart."  But  this 
leaven  is  a  creation  of  God,  which  fact  called  forth  the 
remark  (with  reference  to  Gen.  821),  "How  wretched 
must  the  leaven  be,  that  he  who  has  created  it  bears 
witness"  (that  it  is  bad)  P  More  emphatically  the 
same  thought  is  expressed  in  another  place  with  ref- 
erence to  Gen.  6  6.  The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
said,  "It  is  I  who  put  the  leaven  in  the  dough;  but  for 
the  Evil  Yezer  which  I  have  created  in  him,  he  (man) 
would  have  committed  no  wrong."  ^ 

But  the  leaven,  evil  as  it  is,  has,  according  to  the 
Rabbis,  its  good  purpose  and  its  proper  place  in  the 
universe,  as  anything  created  by  God,  indeed,  cannot  be 
entirely  evil.  Thus,  the  Scriptural  words,  "And  God 
saw  everything  that  he  had  made  and  behold,  it  was  very 
good  "  (Gen.  i  3i),  are  explained  among  other  things  to 
refer  to  the  Evil  Yezer ;  whereupon  the  question  is  put, 
"Indeed,  can  the  Evil  Yezer  be  considered  as  very 
good?"  The  answer  given  is  that  but  for  the  Evil 
Yezer  a  man  would  neither  build  a  house,  nor  marry 

1  See/^r.  Berachoth,  7  d;  Gen.  R.,  34  10.  Cf.  b'TH,  note  12.  Cf. 
above,  p.  145,  note  6.  It  should  be  noticed  that  Gen.  R.,  34  10,  has 
also  one  opinion  to  the  effect :  "  How  poor  must  the  dough  be,  that  the 
baker  bears  witness  against  it."  This  would,  acccording  to  some  com- 
mentators, include  the  whole  of  man  and  the  condemnation  of  his  all 
being  bad,  but  this  opinion  seems  to  be  isolated,  and  is  not  reproduced 
in  the  parallel  passages,  such  as  the  MHG.,  p.  132,  and  Tan.  B.,  i  15  b, 
which  has  also  Ul  niKtr?. 

2  See  MHG.,  p.  132.     Cf.  Gen.  R.,  27  4,  and  T.  B.,  1  15  d. 


VICTORY   OVER  EVIL    YEZER  267 

a  wife,  nor  beget  children,  nor  engage  in  commerce. 
As  further  proof  of  this  is  given  the  verse,  ''Again  I 
considered  all  travail,  and  every  right  work,  that  for 
this  a  man  is  envied  of  his  neighbour"  (Eccles.  44)/ 
Envy  itself,  which  is  one  of  the  ugliest  qualities,  can 
thus  be  made  serviceable  for  a  good  purpose.  This 
corresponds  with  another  statement,  according  to  which 
the  three  things  upon  which  the  world  is  based  are: 
envy,  lust,  and  mercy.  In  another  version  the  same 
statement  is  paraphrased  in  the  following  way :  "  Three 
good  qualities,  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  created 
in  this  world,  namely,  the  Evil  Yezer,  Envy,  and 
Mercy.^''  ^  The  Evil  Yezer  has  thus  little  in 
common  with  the  evil  principle  of  theology,  but  is 
reduced  to  certain  passions  without  which  neither  the 
propagation  of  species  nor  the  building  up  of  the 
proper  civilisation  would  be  thinkable.  They  only 
become  evil  by  the  improper  use  man  makes  of 
them.  It  is  probably  in  this  sense  that  the  Evil  Yezer 
is  called  once  the  servant  of  man.  "The  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  said:  'See  what  this  wicked  people  do. 
When  I  created  them  I  gave  to  each  of  them  two 
servants,  the  one  good  and  the  other  evil.  But  they 
forsook  the  good  servant  and  associated  with  the  evil 
one.'"  ^     But  even  the  Evil   Yezer  in  his  aspect  of 

1  Gen.  R.y  9  7.     Cf.  also  Eccles.  R.,  3  11. 

2  A.  R.  N.y  9  «,  text  and  note  9. 

3  Ag.  Ber.,  I  4.  Cf.  Tan.  B.,  I  13  a.  The  latter  reads,  "  Two  crea- 
tions I  made  in  man :  the  Good  Yezer  and  the  Evil  Yezer P  But  a 
comparison  of  the  two  texts  shows  that  in  this  case  the  Ag.  Ber.  pre- 


268      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

adversary  and  enemy  of  man,  as  his  identification  with 
Satan  suggests,  is  not  supposed  to  be  entirely  evil. 
Thus  Satan  is  said  to  have  had  godly  intentions  in 
his  denunciation  of  Job.  His  purpose  v^as  that  the 
merit  of  Abraham  should  not  be  entirely  obscured  by 
that  of  Job.  Satan  proved  himself  so  grateful  for 
this  appreciation  of  his  nature,  that  he  is  reported  to 
have  kissed  the  Rabbi  on  his  knees,  v^ho  thus  inter- 
preted his  intentions  in  this  generous  way.^  One 
Rabbi  went  even  so  far  as  to  make  man  responsible  for 
the  wickedness  of  Yezer.  This  opinion  is  expressed  in 
connection  with  the  verse,  ''  Lo,  this  only  have  I  found, 
that  God  hath  made  man  upright"  (Eccles.  729),  on 
which  the  Rabbi  remarked:  The  Holy  One,  blessed 
be  he,  who  is  called  righteous  and  upright  and  created 
man  in  his  image,  did  this  only  with  the  intention  that 
man  should  be  as  righteous  and  upright  as  he  himself. 
If  man  will  argue,  why  did  he  then  create  the  Evil 
Yezer  of  whom  it  is  written  that  he  is  evil  from  the  very 
youth  of  man?  If  God  described  him  as  evil,  who 
then  could  make  him  good  ?  God's  answer  is,  ''  Thou 
(man)  hast  made  him  bad."     As  a  proof  is  given  that 

served  the  better  reading.  Cf.  also  S.  E.  Z.,  p.  1 76,  about  the  two  angels 
or  three,  and  IXin  HS^  to  Gen.  R.,  34  10.  Cf.  also  R.  Simon  Duran's 
commentary  (tDStTX:  Sm«)  to  Job  (ed.  Venice),  29  b  and  47  b.  It  is 
interesting  to  see  there  how  the  rationalistic  school,  taking  its  clew  from 
non- Jewish  philosophy,  insists  upon  making  the  body  (or  the  flesh)  re- 
sponsible for  the  Evil  Yezer,  maintaining  the  dualism  of  flesh  and 
spirit  in  the  most  positive  manner  ;  whilst  the  mystical  school  ob- 
jects to  it  and  endeavours  to  ascribe  all  evil  to  powers  outside  of  man. 
^  Baba  Bathra,  16  a. 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL    YEZER  269 

little  children  commit  no  sin,  and  as  it  is  man  who 
breeds  the  Evil  Yezer  it  is  thus  with  the  growth  of  man 
that  sin  comes.  God  further  reproaches  man,  saying, 
that  there  are  many  things  harder  and  bitterer  than 
the  Evil  Yezer,  but  man  finds  the  means  to  sweeten 
them.  If  man  succeeds  in  making  things  palatable 
that  are  created  bitter,  how  much  more  could  he  succeed 
in  tempering  the  Evil  Yezer  who  is  delivered  into  the 
hands  of  man  ?  ^ 

By  making  him  "bad"  is  meant,  the  abuse  of  those 
passions  which  are  in  themselves  a  necessity.  The 
same  question  as  to  why  God  has  created  the  Evil 
Yezer  is  answered  in  another  place  to  the  following 
effect:  The  matter  is  to  be  compared  to  a  king  who 
had  slaves  separated  from  him  by  an  iron  wall.  The 
king  proclaimed,  "He  who  loves  me  shall  climb 
this  wall  and  come  up  to  me.  He  will  prove  by  this 
effort  that  he  fears  the  king,  and  loves  the  king."^ 
The  text  is  not  quite  clear,  but  the  general  drift  is  that 
the  Yezer  who  forms  such  an  obstacle  on  the  path  of 
righteousness  was  created  with  the  purpose  that  man 
should  make  a  strong  effort  to  overcome  him,  thereby 
testifying  his  loyalty  and  devotion  to  the  King  God, 
and  increasing  his  reward  when  all  the  obstacles  have 
been  overcome. 

Though  these  two  opinions  differ  as  to  the  nature 
and  purpose  of  the  Evil  Yezer,  they  both  agree  that  he 

1  Tan.,  fT'^X-Q,  7. 

2  S.  E.  Z.,  p.  193. 


270      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

is  in  the  hands  of  man,  v/ho  is  able  to  overcome  him 
with  a  strong  effort.  Man  is  warned  not  to  be  intimi- 
dated by  the  fact  that  the  Evil  Yezer  is  a  creation  of 
God,  and  say  that  he  has  no  authority  over  him,  for 
it  is  written  in  the  Torah,  ''And  unto  thee  shall  be  his 
desire,  but  thou  shalt  rule  over  him"  (Gen.  47).* 
This  verse  is  paraphrased,  "If  thou  wilt  mend  thy 
actions  in  this  world,  everything  shall  be  forgiven  and 
pardoned  in  the  world  to  come.  But  if  thou  wilt  not 
mend  thy  deeds  in  this  world,  thy  sin  will  be  preserved 
for  the  great  Day  of  Judgement.  And  at  the  door  of 
thy  heart  he  lies,  but  in  thy  hand  I  have  given  the  Evil 
Yezer  J  and  thou  shalt  rule  over  him  both  for  good  and 
for  evil."  ^  Man  has  the  power  in  his  own  hands,^ 
and  it  is  only  by  man's  own  neglect  and  weakness  that 
the  Evil  Yezer,  who  appears  first  quite  effeminate  and 
powerless,  gains  masculine  strength,  enabling  him  to 
dictate  to  man.  If  man  does  well,  he  finds  forgive- 
ness; but  if  he  does  not  well,  he  is  delivered  into  the 
hands  of  the  Evil  Yezer  who  lies  at  the  door.^ 

The  difference  between  the  wicked  and  the  righteous 
is  that  the  wicked  are  in  the  power  of  their  hearts,  while 
the  righteous  have  the  heart  in  their  power.^  Indeed, 
it  would  seem  as  if  everything  depended  upon  man. 
Either  Satan  enters  into  his  body  and  gains  dominion 

1  Gen.  R.,  22  6.     Cf.  the  commentary  of  T'lnHtt. 

2  Pseudo-Jonathan,  Gen.  47.  ^  See  MHG.,  p.  109. 
*  See  MHG.,  p.  107.     See  above,  p.  249. 

^  See  Gen.  R.,  34  10.     By  "  heart "  is  of  course  meant  here  the  Yezer. 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL    YEZER  271 

over  man  and  sin  becomes  his  master,  or  man  gains  mas- 
tery over  Satan  and  he  suppresses  him.^  Nay,  man  has 
in  his  power  not  only  to  resist  the  Evil  Yezer,  but  to  turn 
his  services  to  good  purpose.  At  least  the  wicked  are  re- 
proached for  their  failing  to  make  the  Evil  Yezer  good.^ 
It  is  simply  a  question  of  choice,  the  wdcked  preferring 
the  Evil  Yezer,  while  the  righteous  decide  for  the  Good 
Yezer.^  Again,  the  men  of  the  deluge  are  described 
as  those  who  themselves  rnade  the  Evil  Yezer  rule  over 
them,  by  following  his  devices/  On  the  other  hand, 
Abraham  is  said  to  have  had  dominion  over  the  Evil 
Yezer, ^  whilst  all  the  patriarchs  are  recorded  to  have 
enjoyed  the  blessing  that  the  Evil  Yezer  had  no  domin- 
ion over  them.^  Joseph,  again,  is  called  the  ruler  over 
his  Evil  Yezer  J  When  the  Evil  Yezer  is  about  to  over- 
power man,  the  righteous  will  resist  him  with  an  oath, 
as  we  find  in  the  case  of  Abraham,  Boaz,  David,  and 
Elijah,  who  all  conjured  their  Yezer  to  desist  from  his 
evil  intentions,  while  the  wicked  will  conjure  their 
Yezer,  urging  him  to  commit  the  evil  deed,  as  in  the 
case  of  Gehazi.^  Counsel  is  given  to  man  that  he 
should  prove  himself  higher  and  above  his  sin,  not 
allowing  himself  to  become  its  slave  and  be  buried  under 

1  See  Wertheimer,  D^trn^Itt  tap*?,  p.  4  b. 

2  See  Ag.  Ber.,  ch.  i.  4  mHG.,  p.  131. 

3  Eccles.  R.,gi.  5  MHG.,  p.  354. 
^  See  Baba  Bathra,  ij  a. 

7  A^«;/z.  jR.,  14  6.      Cf.  Deia.  R.,  2 :  33. 

8  See  Sifre,  74  a ;    Gen.  R.,  87  5  ;   Lev.  R.,  23  11  ;   and  references 
given  there.     Cf.  also  MHG.,  p.  585,  text  and  note  31. 


272     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

its  heavy  burden.^  If  man  has  to  make  a  goad  to  direct 
the  animal,  which  he  uses  for  the  purpose  of  ploughing, 
etc.,  how  much  more  should  he  be  careful  to  use  the 
goad  for  the  purposes  of  directing  his  Yezer,  who  can 
by  his  seduction  remove  him  from  this  world  and 
the  world  to  come  ?  ^ 

Man  is  further  advised  to  stir  up  (to  war)  the  Good 
Yezer  against  the  Evil  Yezer}  In  this  war,  man  is 
not  supposed  to  be  neutral.  It  is  his  duty  not  only 
to  assist  the  Good  Yezer  and  save  him  from  his  enemy, 
the  Evil  Yezer,  but  he  should  also  make  an  effort  to 
establish  the  kingdom  of  the  Good  Yezer  over  the  Evil 
Yezer.^  As  an  instance  of  such  a  victory  of  the  Good 
Yezer  over  the  Evil  Yezer  the  following  story  may  be 
given :  The  Saint,  Abba  Tachna,  returned  to  his  village 
on  the  eve  of  the  Sabbath,  when  darkness  was  about  to 
set  in.  He  had  his  pack  on  his  shoulders,  but  there  he 
found  at  the  crossroad  a  leper,  lying,  who  said  unto  him, 
*'  Rabbi,  do  with  me  a  righteousness  (or  act  of  mercy), 
and  carry  me  to  the  town. "  Abba  Tachna  said,  ''  If  I 
leave  here  my  pack  (which  contained  all  his  earnings) 
how  shall  I  and  my  family  maintain  ourselves  ?  But  if 
I  leave  here  this  leper,  I  forfeit  my  soul. "  But  he  de- 
clared the  Good  Yezer  king  over  the  Evil  Yezer,  and  car- 
ried the  leper  to  the  town,  and  then  came  back  and  took 

1  See  Gen.  R.,  22  6.     It  is  with  allusion  to  Ps.  32  1. 

2  See  Lev.  R.,  29  n  ;   Eccles.  R.,  2  11. 
^Bgr.,sa.     Cf.  P.  i^.,  158  a. 

4  Lev.  R.y  34  1 ;   See  also  M.  T.,  41  2,  text  and  notes. 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL    YEZER  273 

his  pack  and  arrived  at  the  town  again  just  about  sun- 
set. They  all  wondered  and  said,  "Is  this  the  Saint 
Abba  Tachna?"  He  himself  had  some  regrets  in  his 
heart  about  it,  fearing  that  he  had  profaned  the  Sab- 
bath, but  just  at  this  time  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
caused  the  sun  to  shine/ 

The  weapons  used  in  this  war  against  the  Evil 
Yezer  are  mainly:  occupation  with  the  study  of  the 
Torah  and  works  of  loving-kindness.  "Blessed  are 
Israel,"  the  Rabbis  say;  "as  long  as  they  are  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  Torah,  and  works  of  loving-kindness, 
the  Evil  Yezer  is  delivered  into  their  hands."  ^ 

It  is  especially  the  Torah  which  is  considered  the  best 
remedy  against  the  Evil  Yezer.  When  Job  remon- 
strated with  God,  "Thou  hast  created  Paradise,  thou 
hast  created  Hell,  thou  hast  created  the  righteous,  and 
thou  hast  created  the  wicked.  Who  prevented  thee  (from 
making  me  righteous?),"  he  sought  by  this  argument 
to  release  the  whole  world  from  judgement,  seeing  that 
they  sin  under  compulsion.  —  But  his  friend  answered 
him,  "If  God  has  created  the  Evil  Yezer,  he  also 
created  the  Torah  as  a  spice  (remedy)  against  him."  ^ 
To  the  same  effect  is  another  passage,  "  My  son,  if  this 
ugly  one  (the  Evil  Yezer)  meets  you,  drag  him  into  the 
schoolhouse  (Beth-Hammidrash).  If  he  is  a  stone,  he 
will  be  ground  (into  powder) ;  if  he  is  iron,  he  will  be 
broken  into  pieces;   as  it  is  said,  'Is  not  my  word  like 

1  See  Ecc/es.  R.,  gi.  2  Abodah  Zarahy  5  b. 

8  Baba  Bathray  id  a. 


274     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

unto  a  fire?  saith  the  Lord,  and  like  a  hammer  that 
breaketh  the  rocks  in  pieces?'"  (Jer.  2329)/ 

The  words  in  the  Psalms,  "Order  my  steps  in  thy 
word,  and  let  not  any  iniquity  have  dominion  over 
me"  (Ps.  119 133),  are  paraphrased  in  the  following 
way:  "David  said,  'Allow  not  my  feet  to  go  where 
they  wish,  but  let  them  go  all  the  time  to  thy  Torah 
in  the  Beth-Hammidrash,  for  the  Evil  Yezer  does  not 
enter  the  Beth-Hammidrash.  He  may  pursue  man  all 
the  way,  but  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  Beth-Hammidrash, 
Satan  must  abandon  the  race.' "  ^  Again,  he  whose  heart 
is  absorbed  in  the  words  of  the  Torah  removes  thereby 
from  himself  all  idle  thoughts  as  well  as  the  thoughts 
insinuated  by  the  Evil  Yezer. ^  The  name  stone  given 
to  the  Evil  Yezer  suggested  also  the  following  alle- 
gorical explanation  of  Gen.  292:  ''And  Jacob  looked^ 
and  behold  there  were  three  flocks  of  sheep.  By  these 
are  meant  the  three  masters  of  the  Synagogue;  For 
out  of  this  well  they  watered  the  flocks  ;  by  this  is  meant 
the  Torah;  but  the  stone  is  great;  this  is  the  Evil 
Yezer,  who  can  only  be  removed  by  the  efforts  of  the 
whole  congregation;  who  rolled  the  stone  from  the  welPs 
mouth,  by  means  of  their  Hstening  to  the  Torah.  But 
as  soon  as  they  left  the  Synagogue,  the  Evil  Yezer  reas- 
serted himself."  *  The  fact,  however,  that  a  part  of  the 
Torah,  or  rather  the  Decalogue,  was  written  on  stone  or 

1  Kiddushin,  30  b.  2  ^/,  r.,  1 19  62.  ^  a.  R.  N.,  35  b. 

4  Gen.  R.,  70  8.  The  word  Q-^T'lp  is  doubtful,  and  still  requires  a 
proper  explanation.     See  above,  p.  244,  note  i. 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL    YEZER  275 

on  "tablets of  stone"  (Exod.  2422),  suggested  the  follow- 
ing explanation :  "  Since  the  Evil  Yezer  is  also  called 
stone,  as  it  is  said,  'And  I  will  take  away  the  stony 
heart'"  (Ezek.  3626),  "it  is  only  proper  that  stone 
should  watch  over  stone."  ^  The  effects  of  the  Torah 
in  this  battle  with  the  Yezer  seem  to  be  differently 
understood  by  the  different  authorities,  for  while  one 
Rabbi  gives  as  advice,  "  If  the  Yezer  come  to  make  you 
merry  (or  frivolous),  then  kill  him  (or  throw  him  down) 
by  the  word  of  the  Torah,"  the  other  Rabbi  counsels  us 
"  to  rejoice  the  Yezer  with  the  words  of  the  Torah" ;  that 
is,  to  use  the  inclination  of  man  towards  joy  and  cheer- 
fulness for  the  joy  and  the  happiness  which  man  should 
find  in  accomplishing  the  will  of  God.^  The  killing  of 
the  Evil  Yezer  is  further  recommended  in  the  follow- 
ing words,  "To  him  who  kills  his  Yezer  and  confesses 
upon  it,  it  is  reckoned  as  if  he  would  have  honoured 
the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  in  two  worlds,  this  world 
and  the  world  to  come."  ^  But  it  would  seem  that  this 
is  not  considered  as  the  highest  attainment  of  man; 
for  it  is  said  of  Abraham,  that  he  made  the  Evil  Yezer 
good.  Indeed,  the  Evil  Yezer  compromised  with  him, 
entering  into  a  covenant  that  he  would  not  make 
Abraham  sin,  whilst  David,  who  could  not  resist  the 
Evil  Yezer,  had  to  slay  him  in  his  heart.'* 

1  Lev.  R.,  35  5;   cf.  also  iVum.  R.,  14  4,  and  Cant.  R.,  6  11. 

2  See  Gen.  R.,  22  6,  text  and  commentaries.     Cf.  MHO.,  p.  1 10,  for 
varying  readings.     Cf.  Theodor's  ed.  of  Gen.  R.,  p.  212. 

3  Sanhedrin,  43  b.     Cf.  Lev.  R.,  9  1.     See  also  below,  p.  335  seq, 
^Jer.  Berachoth,  i^d.     See  also  above,  p.  67. 


276     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Another  means  of  defeating  the  machinations  of 
Yezer  is  the  contemplation  of  death.^  This  can  be 
best  illustrated  by  the  following  passage  of  Akabiah  b. 
Mahalaleel,  ''  Consider  three  things,  and  thou  wilt  not 
come  into  the  hands  of  sin.  Know  whence  thou  com- 
est,  and  whither  thou  art  going,  and  before  whom  thou 
art  to  give  account  and  reckoning."  ^  Another  version 
of  the  same  saying  is,  "He  who  thinks  of  the  following 
four  things  will  never  sin  again:  that  is,  from  whence 
he  comes,  where  he  is  destined  to  go,  what  will  become 
of  him,  and  who  is  his  Judge."  ^  Sin  or  the  Evil  Yezer 
in  this  case  is  chiefly  representative  of  the  passion  of 
vanity.  These  passages  could  be  multiplied  to  any 
extent,  but  they  are  all  to  the  effect  that  man,  medi- 
tating upon  his  lowly  origin  and  his  sad  end,  will 
not  be  slow  to  give  up  all  pretensions  that  come  from 
pride  and  conceit.  Sometimes,  the  remembrance  of 
death  serves  also  as  a  damper  to  man's  tendency 
towards  excess.  An  instance  of  this  we  have  in  the 
following:  "At  the  wedding  of  the  son  of  Rabina,  the 
students  there  present  said  unto  Rab  Hamnuna  Zuta, 
'Let  the  master  sing  a  song  unto  us,'  whereupon  he 
began  to  sing,  '  Woe  unto  us  that  we  shall  die !  Woe 
unto  us  that  we  shall  die ! '  When  they  asked  for  the 
refrain,  he  gave  the  words,  'Where  is  the  Torah,  and 
where  are  the  good  works  that  will  protect  us?'"  * 

1  Berachoth,  5  «.  2  Aboth,  3  l. 

8  D.  E.,  p.  3.     Cf.  A.  R.  JV.,  35  a,  text  and  notes. 
*  Berachothy  31a. 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL    YEZER 


277 


There  may  further  be  brought  together  under  this  cat- 
egory other  remedies  against  the  Evil  Yezer  which  are  of 
an  ascetic  nature.     The  story  of  the  Nazarite  who  had 
his  hair  cut  off  with  the  purpose  of  subduing  his  Yezer 
has  already  been  referred  to.^   A  certain  Rabbi,  again,  is 
recorded  to  have  prayed  for  the  death  of  his  nearest 
kin,  when  he  was  under  the  impression  that  she  would 
become  the  cause  of  sin.^    The  later  Jewish  moralists 
prescribed  a  whole  set  of  regulations,  which  are  more 
or  less  of  an  ascetic  nature,  and  calculated  to  make  a 
fence  against  transgression.     But  the  underlying  idea 
of  all  of  them  is  that  all  opulence,  wealth,  gluttony, 
and   other  opportunities   of   satisfying  one's   appetite 
are  so  many  auxiliaries  to  the  Evil  Yezer.     Thus  the 
Scriptural  verses  in    Deut.   11 15-16  are  paraphrased, 
"Moses  said  unto  Israel,  'Be  careful  that  you  rebel 
not  against  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  because  man 
does  not  enter  upon  this  rebellion,  but  when  he  is  full,'" 
that  is,  revelling    in    food  and  other  luxuries.^    The 
proverb  was,  "A  lion  does  not  roar  from  the  midst  of 
a  heap  of  straw,  but  from  the  midst  of  a  heap  of  meat." 
Another  proverb  was,  "  Filled  stomachs  are  a  bad  sort 
(or  plenty  is  tempting)."  *    Hence  the  homily  of  the 
Rabbi  with  reference  to  the  verse,  ''Behold,  I  have 
refined  thee,  but  not  with   silver;    I  have  chosen  thee 
in  the  furnace  of  poverty"  (Isa.  48  10),  that  it  teaches 
that  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  searched  all  good 

1  See  above,  p.  249.  3  Si/rg,  80  <5.     Cf.  idid.,  136  a. 

2  Taanithy  24  a.  *  Berachoth^  31  a. 


278     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

things  but  found  nothing  better  for  Israel  than  pov- 
erty.^ 

It  should,  however,  be  remarked  that  even  the  Torah 
is  not  an  all-powerful  remedy  in  itself  without  the  aid 
of  heaven,  which  gives  the  Torah  its  real  efficiency. 
Thus  with  reference  to  the  verse,  "Let  my  heart  be 
sound  (D^^ri)  in  thy  statutes,  that  I  be  not  ashamed" 
(Ps.  119,  80),  the  Rabbis  remark,  "David  said,  'Mas- 
ter of  the  world,  when  I  am  occupied  in  Thy  Law, 
allow  not  the  Evil  Yezer  to  divide  me  .  .  .  that  the 
Evil  Yezer  may  not  lead  me  astray  .  .  .  but  make 
my  heart  one,  so  that  I  be  occupied  in  the  Torah  with 
soundness  (perfection  or  fulness).'"^  Again,  with 
reference  to  another  verse,  "Make  me  understand  the 
way  of  thy  precepts"  (Ps.  119  27),  it  is  remarked  that 
David  said,  "My  Master, say  not  unto  me,  behold  they 
(the  words  of  the  Torah)  are  before  thee,  meditate 
upon  them  by  thyself.  For  if  thou  wilt  not  make  me 
understand  them,  I  shall  know  nothing."  ^  The  Torah 
by  itself  is  thus  not  sufficient  to  defeat  the  Evil  Yezer. 
The  conquest  comes  in  the  end  from  God.  We  are 
thus  brought  to  the  necessity  of  grace  forming  a  promi- 
nent factor  in  the  defeat  of  the  Yezer.  Hence,  the  va- 
rious prayers  for  the  removal  or  the  subjugation  of  the 
Evil  Yezer.  Specimens  of  such  prayers  have  already 
been  given.^     Here   we   might   further    refer   to   the 

1  See  Chagigah,  g  b. 

2  Exod.  R.,  19  2.  The  reading  is  not  quite  clear.  I  have  adopted 
the  reading  suggested  by  T*'Tn,  note  8. 

2  M.  T.y  119  16.     See  also  ibid,  to  verse  33.        *  See  above,  p.  265, 


VICTORY   OVER   EVIL    YEZER  279 

individual  prayer  of  R.  Judah  the  Saint,  in  which  he 
suppHcates  that  God  may  save  him  from  the  Evil 
Yezer}  A  similar  prayer  we  have  from  another 
Rabbi  of  a  later  date.^  Other  Rabbis,  again,  put 
their  prayers  in  a  more  positive  form,  as,  for  instance, 
those  who  prayed  that  God  would  endow  them  with  a 
Good  Yezer,^  Sometimes  neither  the  Evil  Yezer  nor 
the  Good  Yezer  is  mentioned,  the  prayer  being  more 
directed  against  sin,  as  for  instance,  the  one  running, 
''May  it  be  thy  will  that  we  shall  not  sin,  and  then  we 
shall  not  be  put  to  shame."  "  The  heart  plays  a  special 
part  in  these  prayers,  as  for  instance  the  one  which 
is  to  the  effect,  "May  our  heart  become  single  in  the 
fear  of  thy  name.  Remove  us  from  all  thou  hatest. 
Bring  us  near  to  all  thou  lovest,  and  do  with  us  a 
righteousness  for  thy  Name's  sake."  Another  similar 
prayer  is,  "May  it  be  thy  will,  Lord  God,  and  the 
God  of  our  fathers,  that  thou  put  into  our  hearts 
to  do  perfect  repentance."  ^  As  typical  in  this  respect 
we  may  perhaps  mention  the  lines  in  the  daily  prayer- 
book,  "  Make  us  cleave  to  the  Good  Yezer  and  to  good 
deeds ;  subjugate  our  Evil  Yezer  so  that  it  may  submit 
itself  unto  thee."  ^  A  prayer  fairly  combining  all  these 
features  is  the  one  repeated  several  times  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement, running  thus:    "Our  God  and  God  of  our 

1  Berachoth,  \6b.  2  Berachoth,  17  a. 

3  See  Berachoth,  1 7  b,  and  Jer.  Berachoth,  4  c. 
*  Berachoth,  \'j  b.  5  Jer.  Berachoth,  7  d. 

6  See    Berachoth,  60  b,  the  text   of  which   differs  in  some   minor 
points  from  that  in  our  prayer-books.     Cf.  Singer,  p,  7,  Baer,  p.  43. 


28o     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

fathers,  forgive  and  pardon  our  iniquities  on  this  Day 
of  Atonement.  .  .  .  Subdue  our  heart  to  serve  thee, 
and  bend  our  Yezer  to  turn  unto  thee ;  renew  our  reins 
to  observe  thy  precepts,  and  circumcise  our  hearts  to 
love  and  revere  thy  Name,  as  it  is  written  in  thy  Law : 
And  the  Lord  thy  God  will  circumcise  thy  heart  and 
the  heart  of  thy  seed,  to  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with 
all  thine  heart  and  with  all  thy  soul,  that  thou  mayest 
live."  ^  The  underlying  idea  of  these  passages,  which 
can  be  multiplied  by  any  number  of  parallel  passages, 
is  man's  consciousness  of  his  helplessness  against  the 
powers  of  temptation,  which  can  only  be  overcome  by 
the  grace  of  God.  The  oldest  prayer  of  this  kind,  of 
course,  is  the  one  in  the  Eighteen  Benedictions,  praying 
for  God's  help  to  bring  man  back  unto  him  or  his 
Torah  and  to  his  service,  as  well  as  the  one  for  re- 
pentance.^ 

A  special  feature  about  the  Rabbinic  passages  em- 
phasising the  necessity  of  grace  in  the  struggle  with 
the  Evil  Yezer,  is  the  implication  of  God's  responsi- 
bility for  the  existence  of  the  Evil  Yezer.  The  pleading 
of  Job  and  his  insistence  upon  God's  power  to  prevent 
sin  has  already  been  quoted,  but  there  Job  is  censured 
for  it.^  Indeed,  he  was  considered  as  an  heretic  for 
making  this  plea.  A  similar  case  we  have  with  Cain. 
When  reproached  for  murdering  his  brother,  he  is 
described  as  saying,  "Master  of  the  world,  if  I  have 

1  See  Festival  Prayers,  Day  of  Atonement,  Part  II,  pp.  I4>  i85»  234* 

2  See  below,  p.  341.  ^  See  above,  p.  273,  note  3. 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL   YEZER  281 

killed  him,  it  is  thou  who  hast  created  in  me  the 
Evil  Yezer.  Thou  watchest  me  and  the  whole  world. 
Why  didst  thou  permit  me  to  kill  him?  It  is  thou 
who  hast  killed  him  ...  for  if  thou  hadst  received 
my  sacrifice,  as  thou  didst  receive  his  (Abel's)  sacri- 
fice, I  would  not  have  become  jealous  of  him."  ^  But 
of  course  Cain  represents  the  bad  type  of  humanity. 
Yet  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  Rabbis  themselves 
sometimes  employed  similar  arguments.  Thus,  with 
reference  to  the  verse,  ''O  Lord,  why  hast  thou  made 
us  to  err  from  thy  ways,  and  hardened  our  heart  from 
thy  fear?"  (Isa.  6317),  the  Rabbis  plead  in  favour 
of  the  brothers  of  Joseph,  '^When  thou  (God)  didst 
choose,  thou  didst  make  them  love;  when  thou  didst 
choose,  thou  didst  make  them  hate."  ^  Something 
similar  is  hinted  about  the  affair  of  Cain  and  Abel. 
R.  Simon  b.  Jochai  said,  "It  is  a  thing  hard  to  say, 
and  it  is  impossible  for  the  mouth  to  utter  it.  It  is  to 
be  compared  to  two  athletes  who  were  wrestling  in  the 
presence  of  the  king.  If  the  king  wills,  he  can  have 
them  separated  ;  but  the  king  wills  not ;  (in  the  end)  one 
overwhelmed  the  other  and  killed  him.  And  (the  dy- 
ing) man  shouted :  '  Who  can  now  demand  justice  for 
me  (seeing  that  the  king  was  present  and  could  have 
prevented  it)  ? ' "  ^  In  another  place  we  read  with  refer- 
ence to  the  verses  in  Micah  46,  Jer.  18  6,  and  Ezek.  36  26, 
that  but  for  such  statements  as  these,  implying  the  pos- 

1  See  MUG.,  p.  112,  and  note  36. 
2  G^n.  R.y  18  20.  3  Gen.  R.,  22  9. 


282      SOME  ASPECTS   OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

sibility  of  God's  power  to  exterminate  the  Evil  Yezer, 
there  would  be  no  hope  for  Israel,  such  a  possibility 
serving  in  extenuation  of  their  guilt. ^  Again,  with  ref- 
erence to  the  verse,  ''  For  he  loioweth  our  frame  (liliC^) ; 
he  remembereth  that  we  are  dust,"  we  are  told  that 
this  fact  will  save  Israel  from  seeing  Hell.  So  Israel 
will  plead  before  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  "Master 
of  the  world,  thou  knowest  the  Evil  Yezer  who  se- 
duces us."  ^  It  is  with  reference  to  the  same  verse, 
that  we  read  as  stated  in  another  place,  "Wretched, 
indeed,  must  be  the  leaven,  if  he  who  has  created  it 
declares  it  as  evil."  ^  The  "whisper  from  above" 
(heaven)  makes  the  serpent  (or  the  Evil  Yezer  whose 
creation  God  regrets)  bite  or  commit  violence  on  earth ; 
because  of  which  fact  "a  door  of  mercy  is  opened  to 
the  sinners  in  Israel  that  they  may  be  received  as 
penitents;  as  they  will  plead  before  him.  Master  of 
the  world:  it  is  revealed  and  known  unto  thee  that  it 
is  the  Evil  Yezer  that  incites  us.  In  thy  great  mercy 
receive  us  in  perfect  repentance."  ^ 

More  emphatic,  even,  is  another  remark  on  the  verse 
of  Jer.  i8  6,  "Israel  said,  'Master  of  the  world  .  .  . 
even  when  we  sin  and  make  thee  angry,  be  not  re- 
moved from  us,  for  we  are  the  clay,  and  thou  art  the 
potter!  .  .  .'     Israel  said,  'Thou  hast  created  in  us  the 

^  Berachoth,  32  a,  and  Sukkah,  52  ^. 

2  A.  R.  N.,  32  a  and  b.  Cf.  Sanhedrin,  105  a,  homily  on  Isa. 
28:26. 

3  Gen.  R.,  34  10.    Cf.  M.  T.,  103  u,  text  and  Note  55.    See  above,  266. 
*  See  S.  E.,  p.  63  a,  text  and  notes.     Cf.  Eccles.  R.^  10  1. 


VICTORY   OVER  EVIL    YEZER 


283 


Evil  Yezer  from  our  very  youth.  It  is  he  who  causes  us 
to  sin  before  thee,  but  thou  dost  not  remove  from  us 
the  sin.  We  pray  thee,  cause  him  to  disappear  from 
us,  so  that  we  may  do  thy  will.'  Whereupon  God 
says,  'So  I  will  do  in  the  world  to  come.'"  ^  Nay, 
there  are  recorded  cases  of  men  belonging  to  the  best 
type  of  humanity,  who  make  the  same  plea  as  Job  and 
Cain,  though  in  somewhat  more  modest  terms.  Thus, 
Moses  is  said  to  have  ''knocked  words  against  the 
height"  (reproached  God),  arguing  it  was  the  gold  and 
silver  which  he  gave  to  Israel  that  was  the  cause  of 
their  making  the  golden  calf.^  Again,  Elijah  "knocked 
words  against  the  height,"  saying  to  God,  "Thou 
hast  turned  their  heart  back  again"  (i  Kings  1837). 
And  the  Rabbis  proceed  to  say  that  God  confessed  that 
Elijah's  contention  was  right.^ 

For,  indeed,  God  sometimes  does  make  sin  impos- 
sible, as  in  the  case  of  Abimelech,  to  whom  God  said, 
"For  I  also  withheld  thee  from  sinning  against  me: 
therefore  suffered  I  thee  not  to  touch  her"  (Gen.  206). 
The  Rabbis  illustrate  this  in  the  following  way:  "It 
is  to  be  compared  to  a  strong  man  riding  on  a  horse. 
But  there  was  a  child  lying  on  the  road  which  was  thus 
in  danger  of  being  run  over.  But  the  man  drove  the 
horse  so  that  it  avoided  the  child.  The  praise  in  this 
case  is  certainly  due  to  the  rider,  not  to  the  horse.  In 
a  similar  way  Abimelech  claimed  a  special  merit  for 
not  having  sinned.     But    God    said  unto  him,   'The 

1  Exod.  R.y  46  4.  2  Berachoth,  32  a.  ^  Berachoth,  ibid. 


284     SOME  ASPECTS   OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Yezer  who  causes  you  to  sin  is  in  my  power,  and  it  was 
I  who  drew  thee  away  from  sin/  "  ^ 

This  direct  interference,  however,  with  the  Evil 
Yezer  seems  exceptional.  What  was  prominent  in  the 
mind  of  the  Jew  was  first,  that  God,  "who  is  a  law  unto 
himself,"  does  not  choose  to  make  use  of  this  preroga- 
tive of  his,  though  the  Evil  Yezer  evidently  belongs  to 
this  class  of  creation  which  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he,  regrets  to  have  called  into  existence,  if  one  can 
say  so.^  "There  is  astonishment  before  me"  (God 
says),  "that  I  have  created  in  man  the  Evil  Yezer, 
for  if  I  would  not  have  created  in  man  the  Evil  Yezer, 
he  would  not  have  rebelled  against  me."  ^  This  regret 
of  God  is  expressed  by  another  Rabbi  in  the  following 
way :  "  After  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  created  this 
world  he  regretted  the  creation  of  the  Evil  Yezer,  as 
it  is  said,  '  O  that  there  were  such  an  heart  in  them 
that  they  would  fear  me  and  keep  my  commandments 
always '  (Deut.  5  29).  This  teaches  that  God  longs 
that  Israel  should  labour  in  the  Torah.  From  this 
thou  inferrest  that  the  authority  (choice)  of  man  is  given 
unto  him ;  therefore  if  he  does  what  he  is  commanded, 
he  merits  to  receive  reward,  as  it  is  said, '  That  it  might 
be  well  with  them  and  their  children  for  ever'  (Deut. 
5  26)."  ^  Apparently,  the  world  is  so  constituted  that 
man  should  be  a  hybrid  of  angel  and  beast  with  the 

1  Gejt.  R.,  52  7.      Cf.  Exod.  R.,  21,  and  P.  K.,  p.  176  b. 

2  Sukkah,  52  b.      Cf.  S.  E.,  p.  63. 

3  Gen.  R.,  27  4.  *  MUG.,  Deut.,  p.  46  b,  Ms. 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL    YEZER  285 

possibility  of  sin,  which  spells  death,  and  that  of  con- 
quering sin,  which  means  life.^  Angels  have  no  Evil 
Yezer  and  are  thus  spared  from  jealousy,  covetousness, 
lust,  and  other  passions,  but  those  who  dwell  below  are 
under  the  temptation  of  the  Evil  Yezer,  and  therefore 
require  a  double  guard  of  holiness  to  resist  him.^  This 
double  guard  they  have  in  the  Torah,  as  indicated 
above ;  otherwise  man  is  a  free  agent.  To  secure  this 
freedom,  it  would  seem  that  God  has  even  foregone 
his  prerogative  in  respect  of  preventing  sin,  so  that 
the  bold  statement  of  the  Rabbi  that  everything  is  in  the 
power  of  God  except  (the  forcing  upon  man  of)  the 
fear  of  God,  has  become  a  general  maxim,  though,  as  is 
well  known,  this  maxim  is  not  without  its  difficulties.^ 
All  that  God  does  is  only  in  the  way  of  warning,  and 
reminding  man  that  there  is  an  Eye  watching  him,  and 
that  he  will  be  responsible  for  his  choice.  "  Everything 
is  seen,  and  freedom  of  choice  is  given  .  .  .  the  shop  is 
open;  and  the  dealer  gives  credit;  and  the  ledger  lies 
open;  and  the  hand  writes;  and  whosoever  wishes  to 
borrow  may  come  and  borrow."  ^     In  another  place, 

1  See  Gen.  R.^  14  3.     See  above,  p.  261,  note  i,  and  below,  292. 

2  See  Shabbath,  89  a  ;    Gen.  R.,  48  11 ;   Lev.  R.,  24  8  and  26  5. 

^  See  Berachoth,  33  b  ;  Megillah,  25  a  ;  Niddah,  16  b;  Tan. 
""^npB,  3.     Cf.  Tosafoth  to  the  passages  in  the  Talmud. 

*  See  Aboth,  3  15.  Cf.  Taylor,  3  24,  and  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  i  282.  See 
also  A.R.N.,  58  b.  According  to  the  version  given  there  of  this  saying 
of  R.  Akiba,  it  is  altogether  very  doubtful  whether  the  Rabbi  really 
meant  to  emphasise  the  antithesis  of  predestination  and  free  will.  Cf. 
Commentaries  to  Aboth.  See  also  A.R.N.,  75  a  and  2>i  b,  suggesting 
that  the  '^^^1  refers  to  man. 


286     SOME  ASPECTS   OF  RABBINIC    THEOLOGY 

the  responsibility  for  his  choice  is  expressed  in  the 
following  words:  "As  it  was  said,  'I  have  set  before 
you  life  and  death,  blessing  and  cursing'  (Deut.  3019), 
Israel  might  perhaps  say,  'Considering  that  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  placed  before  us  two  ways,  the 
way  of  life  and  the  way  of  death,  we  might  go  in  any 
of  these  which  we  like,'  therefore  it  is  further  said, 
*  Choose  Ufe,  that  both  thou  and  thy  seed  may  live' 
(Deut.,  ihid.).''^  ^  Life  is  identical  with  the  good  way. 
Deut.  30  15  is  paraphrased,  "  Behold,  I  have  set  before 
you  this  day  the  way  of  Hfe,  which  is  the  good  way, 
and  the  way  of  death,  which  is  the  bad  way."  ^  The 
sin  of  Adam,  indeed,  consisted  in  the  fact  that  he 
made  choice  of  the  evil.  The  Omnipresent  placed 
before  him  two  ways,  the  one  of  death  and  the  one  of 
life,  and  he  (Adam)  chose  the  way  of  death.^  The 
same  complaint  is  made  of  other  transgressors  in  his- 
tory, of  whom  it  is  said,  "He  setteth  himself  in  a  way 
that  is  not  good"  (Ps.  365).  They  walk  in  iniquity 
and  meditate  iniquity:  they  have  two  ways,  the  one 
for  good  and  the  one  for  evil.  And  so  Solomon  said, 
"Who  leave  the  paths  of  uprightness  to  walk  in  the 
ways  of  darlmess."  For  indeed  the  heart  was  created 
to  speak  truth,  but  your  heart  works  wickedness;  the 
hands  were  created  to  accomplish  goodness  and  right- 
eousness, and  you  do  violence  and  robbery,  and  so  the 

1  See  Si/re,  86  a.     Cf.  Tan.,  HKn,  §  3. 

2  See  Pseudo-Jonathan  to  this  verse. 

3  Mechilta,  2,Z  ^«     Cf.  Gen,  R.,  20  6  and  references. 


VICTORY   OVER   EVIL    YEZER  287 

blind  walk  in  the  evil  way  and  the  open-eyed  ones 
walk  in  the  way  of  good/ 

The  verse,  again,  "Surely  he  scorneth  the  scorners; 
but  he  giveth  grace  unto  the  lowly"   (Prov.  3  34=),  is 
interpreted,   he   who   desires   to    contaminate   himself 
they  open  unto  him,  he  who  desires  to  purify  himself 
they  aid  him  (from  heaven).     "For  indeed  things  de- 
filing do  not  come  upon  man  unless  he  turned  his 
mind   to   them  and   became  defiled  by  them,"  whilst 
God  increases  the  strength  of  the  righteous  that  they 
may  do  his  will,  but  he  that  guards  himself  against  sin 
for  three  times,  has  the  promise  that  henceforth  God 
will  guard  him  ^     In  different  words,  the  same  thought 
is  expressed  in  another  place,  "In  the  way  in  which 
a  man  chooses  to  walk,  they  guide  him  (or  allow  him 
to  walk).     This  is  to  be  derived  from  the  Torah,  where 
it  is  written  (with    regard    to    Balaam),  first,    'Thou 
shalt  not  go  with  them'  (Num.  25  12),  and  then,  'Rise 
up  and  go  with  them'  {ibid,  20);   from  the  Prophets, 
where   it   is   said,  'I   am  the   Lord,  thy  God,  which 
teacheth  thee  to  profit,  which  leadeth  thee  by  the  way 
that  thou   shouldst  go'    (Isa.   48  17);    and    from  the 
Hagiographa,  where   it  is  said,  'Surely,    he  scorneth 
the  scorners;    but  he   giveth    grace    unto    the   lowly' 
(Prov.  3  35).  "3 
A  peculiar  paraphrase  of  the  verses  quoted  above  from 

1  M.  T.,  36  3  and  58  2;   Exod.  R.,  30  20. 

2  Shabbath,  104  a.     See  also  T.  K.,  91  a;   P.  K.,  161  «;   and /-jr. 
Kiddushin,  61  d.  ^  Makkoth,  10  b. 


288     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Deuteronomy  (30  is),  we  have  in  the  following  passage 
taken  from  a  later  Midrash:  ''Rabbi  Eliezer  said,  'I 
heard  with  my  ears  the  Lord  of  Hosts  speaking.  And 
what  did  he  say?  "Behold,  I  have  set  before  you  this 
day  the  life  and  the  good,  death  and  the  evil.'' 
The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said,  "Behold,  these 
two  ways  I  have  given  to  Israel,  the  one  for  good  and 
the  one  for  evil:  that  of  good  is  of  Hfe,  that  of  evil 
is  of  death."  That  of  good  branches  off  in  two  ways: 
of  righteousness  and  of  loving-kindness:  Elijah  is 
placed  in  the  middle.  And  when  a  man  is  about  to 
enter  upon  them,  he  exclaims  and  says,  "  Open  ye  the 
gates,  that  the  righteous  nation  .  .  .  may  enter  in" 
(Isa.  26  2).  .  .  .  But  that  of  the  evil  has  four  doors: 
upon  each  door  seven  guardians  are  seated:  four 
within  and  three  without.  Those  outside  are  merciful 
angels.  .  .  .  And  when  he  is  about  to  enter  in  the 
first  door,  the  merciful  angels  meet  him  first  and  say 
unto  him,  "Why  dost  thou  want  to  enter  into  this 
fire,  among  the  wicked  and  the  coals?  Listen  unto 
us  and  do  repentance.  .  .  ."  When  he  comes  to  the 
second  door,  they  say  unto  him,  "Behold,  thou  hast 
already  passed  in  through  the  first  door,  do  not  enter 
into  the  second !  Why  dost  thou  want  to  be  removed 
from  the  Torah  of  God,  that  they  call  thee  'unclean,' 
and  flee  from  thee?"  .  .  .  When  he  comes  to  the  third 
door,  they  tell  him,  "Thou  hast  already  passed  the 
second  door!  Why  come  into  the  third?  Why  wilt 
thou  be  wiped    out    from    the    book    of    life?  ^  .  . 


VICTORY  OVER  EVIL   YEZER  289 

Listen  unto  us  and  return!"  When  he  reaches  the 
fourth  door,  they  say  unto  him,  "Thou  hast  passed 
aheady  the  third  door!  do  not  come  into  the  fourth 
door!  .  .  .  Thou  hast  not  Ustened  and  stayed  thy 
steps  hitherto  ...  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  for- 
gives the  sins  and  pardons,  and  says  every  day, '  Return, 
ye  backsliding  children!'"  If  he  listens  unto  them, 
well;   if  not,  woe  unto  him  and  to  his  star.'  '*  ^ 

The  quoted  passage,  with  the  constant  reminder 
coming  from  the  angels  of  mercy,  brings  us  back  to 
the  idea  of  grace,  or  the  thought  of  man  standing  in 
need  of  the  aid  of  heaven  in  his  struggle  with  Yezer, 
Besides  the  passages  given  above,  we  may  add  here  the 
following  statement,  "Every  day  the  Yezer  of  man 
assaults  him  and  endeavours  to  kill  him,  and  but 
for  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  who  helps  man,  he 
could  not  resist  him."  ^  It  may  be  that  it  was  this 
feeling  of  man's  comparative  helplessness  in  such  a 
condition  which  wrung  the  cry  from  the  Rabbi,  "Woe 
unto  me  of  my  (Evil)  Yezer  and  woe  unto  me  of  my 
Yozer  (Creator)."  ^  But  man  has  to  show  himself 
worthy  of  this  grace,  inasmuch  as  it  is  expected  that 
the  first  effort  against  the  Evil  Yezer  should  be  made  on 
his  part,  whereupon  the  promise  comes  that  Yezer  will  be 
finally  removed  by  God.     Thus  with  reference  to  the 

^  p.  R.  E.,  ch.  15.  Cf.the  commentary  of  bm.  Cf.  Mr.  C.  G. 
Montefiore,  Rabbinic  Conception  of  Repentance,  Jewish  Quarterly 
Review,  v.  16,  pp.  209-257. 

2  Sukkah,  S2b.  8  See  Berachoth,  61  a. 

U 


290     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Scriptural  verse,  "O  Israel,  return  unto  the  Lord  thy 
God;  for  thou  hast  stumbled  by  thine  iniquity"  (Hos. 
14 1),  the  Rabbis  remark  that  it  is  to  be  compared  to  a 
huge  rock  that  was  placed  on  the  crossways,  on  which 
men  used  to  stumble;  whereupon  the  king  said  unto 
them,  ''Chip  it  off  little  by  little  until  the  hour 
comes  when  I  will  remove  it  altogether."  ^  Another 
version  of  the  same  saying  is,  "Israel  said  before  the 
Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  'Master  of  the  world,  thou 
knowest  the  power  of  the  Evil  Yezer,  which  is  very 
hard.'  Whereupon  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said 
unto  them,  'Move  the  stone  a  little  in  this  world, 
and  I  will  remove  it  from  you  in  the  next  world,  as  it 
is  said,  "Cast  up,  cast  up  the  highway;  gather  out 
the  stones"  (Isa.  62  10),  whilst  in  another  place  it  is 
said,  "Cast  ye  up,  cast  ye  up,  prepare  the  way,  take 
up  the  stumbling-block  of  my  people"'  (Is.  57  14)."  ^ 

The  struggle  with  the  Evil  Yezer  will  cease  with 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  "when  the  Holy  One,  blessed 
be  he,  will  bring  the  Evil  Yezer  and  kill  him  in  the 
presence  both  of  the  righteous  and  of  the  wicked." 
To  the  righteous  he  will  appear  in  the  shape  of  a  big 
mountain,  and  they  will  cry  and  will  say,  "How  were 
we  able  to  subdue  such  an  obstacle?"  In  the  eyes  of 
the  wicked,  he  will  resemble  a  thin  hair,  and  they  will 
cry  and  say,  "O  that  we  were  not  strong  enough  to 
defeat  such  an  insignificant  impediment ! "  ^     In  another 

1  /*.  ^.,  165  «.  2  j^^^^  j^^^  i^  ig      Q^    fan.  B.,  4  28  a. 

3  Sukkah,  ^2  a.  Cf.  also  Gen.  R.,  48  11  and  89  1  ;  Exod.  R.,  41  7 
and  46  4,  and  Num.  R.,  176;  Deut.  R.y  2  30  and  6  14 ;  F,  R,,  29  a. 


VICTORY   OVER  EVIL    YEZER  291 

place,  the  removal  of  the  Yezer  from  the  world  is 
described  as  follows:  "If  your  scattered  ones  will  be 
in  the  end  of  the  heaven,  from  there  the  word  of  the 
Lord  your  God  will  gather  you  through  Elijah  the 
High  Priest,  and  from  there  he  will  bring  you  near 
through  the  hands  of  the  King  Messiah.  And  the 
word  of  the  Lord  your  God  will  bring  you  to 
the  land  which  your  fathers  inherited,  and  you  shall 
inherit  it;  and  he  will  do  you  good,  and  multiply  you 
above  your  fathers.  And  the  Lord  your  God  will 
remove  the  folly  of  the  hearts  of  your  children,  for  he 
will  make  the  Evil  Yezer  cease  from  the  world,  and 
will  create  the  Good  Yezer,  who  will  counsel  you  to 
love  the  Lord  your  God  with  all  your  hearts,  and  all 
your  souls,  that  your  lives  may  last  forever. "  ^ 

Only  once  in  history  Israel  had  a  presentiment  of 
these  Messianic  times.  When  Israel  (on  the  occasion 
of  the  Revelation  on  Mount  Sinai)  heard  the  command- 
ment ''Thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  before  me" 
(Exod.  20  3),  the  Evil  Yezer  was  uprooted  from  their 
hearts;  but  when  they  came  to  Moses  and  said  unto 
him,  "Our  master  Moses,  become  thou  the  messenger 
between  us  (Israel  and  God),  as  it  is  said,  'Speak  thou 
with  us  .  .  .  but  let  not  God  speak  with  us  lest  we 
die'  (Exod.  20  19),  the  Evil  Yezer  came  back  at  once 
in  his  place."  They  came  again  to  Moses  and  said, 
"Our  master  Moses,  we  wish  that  he  (God)  should 
reveal  himself  again  unto  us."     He   answered   them, 

1  Pseudo-Jonathan,  Deut.,  30  4, 


292     SOME  ASPECTS   OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

"This  is  impossible  now  (but  it  will  take  place  in  the 
future  to  come)."  ^  Every  separation  from  God,  though 
not  with  the  intention  of  sin,  but  with  the  purpose  of 
establishing  an  intermediary,  is,  as  we  see,  considered 
as  the  setting  up  of  another  God,  who  is  the  cause  of 
sin;  whilst  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  suggested  that  it  is 
by  the  conquering  of  the  Evil  Yezer  that  man  enters  into 
close  communion  with  God.  Thus  Lev.  9  6  is  para- 
phrased, "  Remove  the  Evil  Yezer  from  your  heart  and 
the  Divine  Presence  will  at  once  be  revealed  to  you."  ^ 
But  it  is  this  struggle  on  the  part  of  man  which  places 
him  above  the  angels.  "The  angels  said  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  'Master  of  the 
world,  why  are  we  not  allowed  to  intone  our  song  here 
in  heaven  (in  the  praise  of  God)  before  Israel  sing  their 
song  below  on  earth?'  And  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he,  answered  to  them,  *  How  shall  you  say  it  (the  song) 
before  Israel?  Israel  have  their  habitation  on  earth; 
they  are  born  of  women,  and  the  Evil  Yezer  has  domin- 
ion among  them,  and  nevertheless  they  oppose  the 
Yezer  and  declare  my  unity  every  day,  and  proclaim 
me  as  King  every  day,  and  long  for  my  Kingdom  and 
for  the  rebuilding  of  my  Temple.'"  ^ 

1  Can^.  R.,  I  2.  2  Pseudo-Jonathan,  Lev.  9  6. 

3  See  Friedmann,  DTTBDS,  p.  56.     See  above,  p.  91,  note  2. 


XVII 

FORGIVENESS   AND   RECONCILIATION 
WITH   GOD 

The  various  aspects  of  the  doctrine  of  atonement 
and  forgiveness  as  conceived  by  the  Rabbis  may  be 
best  grouped  round  the  following  Rabbinic  passage: 
"  They  asked  Wisdom  (Hagiographa), '  What  is  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  sinner  ? '  Wisdom  answered, '  Evil  pur- 
sues sinners'  (Prov.  1321).  They  asked  Prophecy, 
'What  is  the  punishment  of  the  sinner?'  Prophecy 
answered,  'The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die'  (Ezek. 
184).  They  asked  the  Torah,  'What  is  the  punish- 
ment of  the  sinner  ? '  Torah  answered,  '  Let  him  bring 
a  guilt -offering  and  it  shall  be  forgiven  unto  him,  as 
it  is  said,  "And  it  shall  be  accepted  for  him  to  make 
atonement  for  him"'  (Lev.  1 4).  They  asked  the 
Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  'What  is  the  punishment  of 
the  sinner  ? '  The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  answered, 
'Let  him  do  repentance  and  it  shall  be  forgiven  unto 
him,  as  it  is  said,  "  Good  and  upright  is  the  Lord : 
therefore  will  he  teach  sinners  in  the  way"'  (Ps.  258) — • 
that  isj  that  he  points  the   sinners  the  way  that  they 

293 


294     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

should  do  repentance."  ^  It  need  hardly  be  remarked 
that  to  the  Rabbi  the  whole  of  the  Bible  was  the  word 
of  God,  and  he  could  not  thus  fairly  have  seen  a  con- 
tradiction between  the  dictum  of  the  Holy  One,  blessed 
be  he,  and  the  dicta  of  the  Torah  and  those  of  the 
"Prophets  of  truth  and  righteousness."  Besides,  it 
could  not  have  escaped  the  Rabbi  that  both  the  Torah 
and  the  Prophets  have  passages  enough  insisting  upon 
the  importance  of  repentance.  Again,  sacrifices,  as  we 
shall  see  presently,  according  to  the  Rabbis  are  always 
accompanied  by  repentance,  whilst  the  chief  function 
of  repentance  is  limited  to  such  cases  as  those 
in  which  sacrifices  are  of  no  avail.  What  the  Rabbi 
really  meant  is,  that  forgiveness  is  achieved  in 
various  ways,  through  suffering  and  death,  through 
atonement  of  sacrifices,  but  more  prominently  through 
repentance,  which  latter  is  the  most  divine  aspect  of 
the  three.  It  should  be  premised  that  the  prerogative 
of  granting  pardon  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  God, 
every  mediator  being  excluded  from  this  prerogative; 
"  for  he  will  not  pardon  your  transgressions,"  being  a 
mere  messenger  to  accomplish  what  he  is  bidden  to 
do.  And  so  David  said,  "Master  of  the  world,  wilt 
thou  deliver  me  into  the  hand  of  an  angel  who  wilt 
not    lift    up    his    countenance?     Forgiveness    is    with 

1  See/er.  Makkoth,  31  d,  and  P.  K.,  158  b.  The  texts  are  in  both 
places  defective,  but  they  supplement  each  other.  Cf.  Yalkut  Machiri 
to  Ps.  25  8,  reproducing  the  passage  from  Jer.  Makkoth  in  the  order  of 
Torah,  Prophecy,  Hagiographa,  and  God,  adding  also  between  Prophets 
and  Hagiographa  David,  with  a  reference  to  Ps.  104  35. 


FORGIVENESS  AND   RECONCILIATION  295 

thee  (God),  as  it  is  said,  'But  there  is  forgiveness 
with  thee'  (Ps.  1304)."^  David  also  prayed,  "Let 
my  sentence  come  from  thy  Presence  (Ps.  171);  do 
thou  judge  me,  and  deliver  me  not  into  the  hands  of 
an  angel,  or  a  seraph,  or  a  cherub,  or  an  ofaUy  for 
they  are  all  cruel,"  as  indeed  they  do  object  to  the 
acceptance  of  the  penitents  altogether.^  Indeed,  God 
is  desirous  of  acquitting  his  creatures  and  not  of  declar- 
ing them  guilty.  When  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
said  unto  Moses,  ''What  is  my  profession  (Hli^li^)  ?"  he 
answered,  "Thou  art  merciful  and  gracious  and  long- 
suffering  and  abundant  of  goodness."  ^  When  they 
sin  and  provoke  his  anger,  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he,  seeks  for  one  to  plead  on  their  behalf  and  paves 
the  way  for  him.* 

As  sacrifice  as  a  means  of  atonement  is  a  promi- 
nent feature  both  in  the  Torah  and  in  Rabbinic  litera- 
ture, it  will  perhaps  be  best  here  to  treat  first  of  this 
aspect.  It  should  be  remarked  that  sacrifices  are, 
as  just  hinted  at,  very  limited  in  their  efficacy  as  a 
means  of  atonement  and  reconciliation.  Thus  with 
reference  to  Lev.  4  1,  "If  a  soul  shall  sin  through  igno- 

1  See  Tan.  B.,  2  u  d,  text  and  notes.  Cf.  Sanhedrin,  38  b,  the 
references  there  to  Exod.  23  21.     Cf.  above,  p.  41,  text  and  notes. 

2  See  Ag,  Ber.,  ch.  9.  See  also  below,  pp.  319  and  321.  Cf.  S.  E., 
p.  109.  See  also  Hoffmann's  remark,  Das  Buck  Leviticus,  11 86,  that 
whilst  it  is  the  priest  who  atones,  \rOT\  IBSI,  the  pardon  comes  from 
God,  nbD31. 

^  See  Yalkut  to  Num.  148  and  Job,  §  907,  reproduced  from  the 
Yelamdenu. 

4  Tan.,  «-l'1,  8.     Cf.  P.  R.,  ibid. 


296     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

ranee,"  the  general  rule  is  laid  down,  "  One  brings  a 
sin-offering  for  sins  committed  in  ignorance,  but  brings 
no  sin-offering  for  sins  committed  wilfully,"  which  rule 
is  also  applied  to  sin-offerings.^  In  another  place,  with 
reference  to  Prov.  212,  it  is  pointed  out  that  the  superi- 
ority of  practising  the  works  of  charity  and  justice 
over  sacrifices  consists  in  this,  that  whilst  the  atoning 
effect  of  the  former  extends  also  to  the  sins  committed 
wilfully,  that  of  the  latter  is  confined  only  to  sins  com- 
mitted unintentionally.^  It  is  further  to  be  noticed  that 
the  great  majority  of  sacrifices  are  largely  confined 
to  matters  ritual  and  ceremonial,  and  certain  other 
transgressions  relating  to  Levitical  impurity ;  whilst  all 
those  sins  which  concern  a  person  and  which  fall 
mostly  under  the  heading  of  moral  laws  could  not  be 
atoned  without  proper  restitution.^  Lastly,  it  is  to  be 
remarked,  that  sin-  and  guilt-offerings,  according 
to  the  opinion  of  the  majority  of  the  Rabbis,  are 
accompanied  by  repentance  and  by  a  confession 
of  sins  on  the  part  of  the  man  who  brings  the  sacri- 
fices.* The  injunction  is,  "Be  not  like  the  fools  who 
bring  a  sacrifice  for   their  offences,  but  turn  not  from 

1  See  Kerithoth,  9  «;    T.  K.,\z^b;   Si/re,  32  3. 

2  Deut.  R.,  5  3.     See  commentaries. 

^  See  Maimonides,  m^Jw^  mSTTl,  ch.  i  and  9,  regarding  the  cases  in 
which  a  sin-  or  guilt-offering  is  brought. 

*  See  Shebuoth,  13  «  ;  Kerithoth,  7  a  ;  Tosephta  Yoma^  p.  190  (§  9). 
Cf.  also  Sifrey  2  a,  with  regard  to  Confession.  See  also  Maimonides, 
naiiyn,  I.,  and  Hoffmann,  Das  Buck  Leviticus,  I.,  p.  202.  Cf.  also 
below,  p.  337,  note  i. 


FORGIVENESS  AND   RECONCILIATION  297 

the  evil  deeds  which  they  have  in  their  hands,  and  are 
not  accepted  in  grace."  ^ 

A  main  condition  in  the  sacrificial  service  aptly  de- 
scribed sometimes  in  contradistinction  to  prayer  as  the 
"service  of  deeds"  is  the  purity  of  intention  and  the 
singleness  of  purpose  with  which  the  sacrifice  is  brought. 
It  has  to  be  brought  with  the  intention  "of  giving 
calmness  of  spirit  for  the  sake  of  him  who  created  the 
world."  Quantity  is  of  no  consideration,  considering 
that  both  the  burnt -offering  of  an  animal  and  the  burnt- 
offering  of  a  mere  bird  form  a  sweet  savour  unto 
the  Lord  (Lev.  i  9  and  17).  "This  is  to  teach,"  as  the 
Rabbis  proceed  to  say,  "that  both  he  who  increases  (his 
offering)  and  he  who  diminishes  his  offering  are 
alike  pleasing  unto  the  Lord,  provided  each  directs  his 
mind  toward  heaven."  ^  From  another  place,  it  would 
almost  seem  as  if  it  were  the  less  costly  sacrifice  that  is 
the  more  acceptable.  It  is  with  reference  to  the  circum- 
stance that  the  term  D^^pm  used  of  the  sacrifice  con- 
sisting in  a  ram  (Lev.  i  is)  is  omitted  at  the  sacrifice 
consisting  of  a  bullock  (Lev.  ibid.,  9),  On  this  the 
Rabbis  remark,  "Let  no  man  think,  'I  will  do  things 
ugly  and  things  unworthy,  but  will  afterwards  bring 
a  bullock  which  has  much  flesh  and  cause  it  to  be 
brought  upon  the  altar.'     How  !   will  God  respect  per- 

^  Targum,  Eccles.  4  17  ;   cf.  Berachoth,  23  a. 

2  See  T.  K.y  8  b  and  9  b.  See  also  Zebachifn,  46  b.  Cf.  Hoffmann 
as  above,  p.  92.  The  words  "  calmness  of  spirit "  are  a  sort  of  para- 
phrase of  the  Hebrew  equivalent,  VXT^  PT'I,  usually  rendered  into  Eng- 
lish by  "sweet  savour."     Cf.  above,  p.  160. 


298      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC    THEOLOGY 

sons?  'But  let  man  do  good  deeds  and  devote  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  Torah  and  bring  the  lean  ram 
.  .  .  and  I  shall  have  mercy  with  him  and  accept  his 
repentance.'"  ^  If  the  sacrifice  is  not  brought  with  the 
intention  of  pleasing  God,  it  is  reckoned  unto  them  as 
if  they  have  brought  it  only  for  their  own  purposes.^ 
Indeed,  it  would  seem  that  according  to  the  Rabbis  the 
only  raison  d^etre  for  sacrifices  is  man's  compliance 
with  God's  will,  who  prescribed  this  order  of  service. 
Thus,  with  reference  to  Num.  282,  it  is  remarked,  "It 
is  a  calmness  of  spirit  for  me,  I,  who  commanded  it 
and  my  will  was  done."  The  Rabbi  proceeds  then  to 
prove  that  the  sacrifices  have  not  the  purpose  of  pro- 
viding the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  with  food,  and 
quotes  the  well-known  verses  of  the  50th  Psalm,  and 
concludes  to  the  effect:  "But  why  did  God  say  sacri- 
fice unto  him,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  will?"^ 

1  See  S.  E.,  pp.  36  and  38,  and  Lev,  R.,  2  12.  The  term  i^lpm  (to 
bring  near)  is  interpreted  to  mean  the  closer  communion  with  God 
which  is  to  be  established  by.  the  sacrifice  in  question.  See  the  com- 
mentary, ^Xin  nS'',  to  this  passage  in  Lev.  R. 

2  See  T.  K.,  12  c.  Cf.,  however,  the  commentary  of  R.  Abraham  b. 
David  to  this  passage. 

3  See  Sifre,  54  a.  Cf.  P.  K.,  56  seq.,  and  P.  R.,  pp.  80,  194  a  seq., 
and  references,  given  there  in  the  commentaries.  See  also  Yalkiit 
Machiri  to  Ps.  50  4-14.  It  ought  to  be  remarked  that  the  reading  in 
the  concluding  sentence  of  our  passage  in  the  Sifre  is  not  certain.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Machiri,  this  sentence  reads  to  the  effect  that,  "  Indeed, 
God  is  in  no  need  of  sacrifices,  but  only  told  man  to  sacrifice  unto 
him  in  order  to  do  his  (man's)  will,"  which  reading  received  some 
support  from  P.  R.,  195  a,  where  it  reads  that  "the  sacrifices  were 
only  instituted  for  thy  (man's)  atonement  and  honour."     Neverthe- 


FORGIVENESS  AND  RECONCILIATION 


299 


The  atoning  effect  of  sacrifices  differs  with  the  vari- 
ous sacrifices.  The  sin-offering  brings  complete  recon- 
ciliation, whilst  others  have  only  the  power  of  partial 
atonement  or  of  suspending  the  judgement  of  God.^ 
Interesting  is  the  following  controversy  between  the 
School  of  Shammai  and  the  School  of  Hillel  with  refer- 
ence to  the  "continual  burnt -offering"  consisting  of 
two  lambs  (Num.  28  3,  seq.).  According  to  the  School 
of  Shammai,  "they  only  subdue  the  sins  of  Israel," 
as  it  is  said,  "He  will  subdue  our  iniquities;  and  thou 
wilt  cast  all  their  sins  into  the  depths  of  the  sea" 
(Micah  7  19),  but  the  School  of  Hillel  teaches  that, 
"Everything  which  is  subdued  (or  sunk)  may,  in  the 
end,  come  to  the  surface,"  but  the  name  of  this  sacri- 
fice means  that  the  two  lambs  have  the  effect  to  wash 
away   the   sins   of  Israel.^      It  is   in  this   way,   it   is 

less  I  am  not  inclined  to  think  that  the  Rabbis  entertained  any  such 
rationalistic  views  as  those  with  regard  to  sacrifices.  Excepting  the 
well-known  passage  in  Lev.  R.^  22  8,  the  meaning  of  which  is,  however, 
very  doubtful,  there  is  nothing  to  prove  that  they  in  any  way  depre- 
cated it.  Cf.  Hoffmann,  Das  Buck  Leviticus,  pp.  79-92.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  facility  with  which  the  Rabbis  adapted  themselves  after  the 
destruction  of  the  Holy  Temple  to  the  new  conditions  must  impress  one 
with  the  conviction  that  the  sacrificial  service  was  not  considered  abso- 
lutely indispensable. 

1  Cf.  Hoffmann,  ibid.,  pp.  79-92.  About  sacrifices  atoning  only 
partially  or  having  only  suspending  power,  n':''in,  see  Yoma,  85  b,  text 
and  commentaries, 

^  P.  K.,  6i  b  ;  P.  R.,?>^  a  and  commentaries.  The  Beth  Shammai 
take  the  word  D''ll?nD  as  if  it  were  written  with  a  tT,  thus  meaning 
"suppressing"  or  "subduing,"  and  corresponding  to  12733''  of  Micah. 
The  Beth  Hillel  take  the  word  D''tr33  as  if  it  would  have  a  D  instead 
of  a  ti^,  which  would  thus  mean  "  washing  "  and  refer  to  Jeremiah,  4  14. 


300     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

pointed  out,  that  the  man  living  in  Jerusalem  could 
be  considered  as  righteous,  considering  that  the  con- 
tinual offering  of  the  morning  atoned  for  the  trans- 
gressions of  the  night,  and  the  continual  offering  of  the 
afternoon  atoned  for  the  transgressions  of  the  day/ 
The  continual  offering  was  a  communal  offering, 
nor  is  there  in  the  Bible  ascribed  to  it  any  atoning 
power;  but  there  is  a  marked  tendency  in  Rabbinic 
literature  to  bestow  on  all  sacrifices,  even  such  as  the 
burnt -offering  and  the  peace-offering,  some  sort  of 
atoning  power  for  certain  classes  of  sins,  both  of  com- 
mission and  omission,  for  which  the  Bible  ascribes  no 
sacrifice  at  all.^  We  find,  further,  that  they  ascribed 
an  atoning  power  to  the  vestments  of  the  high  priests. 
All  such  passages  have  to  be  taken  cum  grano  salis ; 
they  are  in  no  way  meant  to  relieve  the  indi- 
vidual from  his  duty  to  perform  or  to  refrain  from 
certain  actions,  nor  from  any  punishment  or  fine  con- 
nected with  the  transgression  in  question,  be  it  of  a 
prohibitive  or  affirmative  nature.  Such  atonements, 
especially  those  connected  with  the  vestments  of  the 
high  priests  or  with  communal  offerings,  extend 
chiefly  to  the  community,  which,  in  accordance  with 
the  Rabbinic  high  conception  of  the  close  solidarity 

1  See  Pseudo-Jonathan  to  Num.  28  4  ;  P.  K.,  55  3  ;   and  P.  P.  78  b. 

2  See  above,  p.  226,  with  regard  to  the  function  of  the  burnt-offering, 
which  atones  for  the  evil  meditations  of  the  heart.  According  to 
others,  it  atones  for  failing  to  accomplish  the  affirmative  laws  of  the 
Bible.     See  Arachin,  16  a,  with  regard  to  incense.     See  also   Tan. 

msrn,  15. 


FORGIVENESS  AND   RECONCILIATION  301 

of  Israel,  was  greatly  responsible  for  the  sins  of  the 
individual,  but  practically  helpless  to  prevent  them. 
Following,  as  it  seems,  the  precedent  of  the  expiatory 
ceremony  of  the  heifer  beheaded  in  the  valley  in  the 
case  of  unknown  murder  (Deut.  21  1-9),  they  also  came 
to  perceive  in  almost  every  object  connected  with  the 
sanctuary  or  the  high  priest  as  many  symbolic  atone- 
ments protecting  the  community  against  the  conse- 
quences of  sins  beyond  its  ken  and  its  power  to  interfere.^ 
The  Day  of  Atonement,  with  its  various  atoning 
functions,  is  also,  as  is  well  known,  largely  the  means  of 
protection  for  the  community,  and  is  chiefly  concerned 
with  sins  connected  with  Levitical  impurity.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbis,  the  atoning  effect  of  the  scapegoat 
(Lev.  16  21)  extends  also  to  the  individual,  and  expiates 
also  for  other  "transgressions  of  the  Law,  the  light  and 
the  heavy  ones,  committed  intentionally  or  uninten- 
tionally, knowingly  or  unknowingly,  of  an  affirmative 
or  prohibitive  nature,  punished  by  excision  from  the 
community  or  even  by  capital  punishment."  ^     It  is 

1  See  /.  T.  Yoma,  44  b  ;  Arachin,  15  «  ;  Zebachim,  88  b,  text  and 
commentaries  ;  Lev.  R.,  10  6,  and  Cant.  R.,  4  4.  Some  sort  of  a  prece- 
dent is  given  in  the  diadem  on  the  forehead  of  the  high  priest,  to 
which  an  atoning  efficacy  is  ascribed  in  the  Scriptures.  See  Exod. 
28  38.  Cf.  also  Epstein's  commentary,  Htt'^ian  min,  to  Exod.  29  1. 
The  explanation  given  in  the  text  here  is  that  suggested  by  certain 
commentators  of  the  Talmud,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  only  true  one, 
though  the  Agadic  expressions  are  very  vague  and  not  always 
consistent. 

2  See  Shebuoth,  2  b,  Mishnah  and  Gemara,  2  b  and  6  <5  to  14  <z. 
Cf.  Yoma,  85  b,  Mishnah;   T.  K.,  82  b.     The  distribution  of  the  vari- 


302      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

further  to  be  noticed  that,  according  to  the  Rabbis, 
it  is  the  Day  of  Atonement  that  atones  ''even  when 
there  is  no  sacrifice  and  no  goat,"  it  being  the  day 
itself  which  has  this  efficacy,  independent  of  the  sacri- 
ficial worship/  But,  on  the  other  hand,  this  efficacy 
is  subject  to  the  following  two  important  conditions: 
first,  that  it  has  to  be  accompanied  by  repentance  on 
the  part  of  those  who  are  meant  to  profit  by  it ;  ^  and, 
further,  that  in  matters  between  man  and  man  the 

ous  atonements  over  the  various  sacrifices  brought  on  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment and  other  festivals  and  the  particular  function  of  each  sacrifice  is 
one  of  the  most  complicated  subjects  in  Rabbinic  literature,  and  is  dis- 
cussed at  great  length  by  different  schools  both  in  the  Talmud  of 
Babylon,  and  the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  of  the  Tractates  just  named. 
Briefly  stated,  it  comes  to  this,  that  all  the  sacrifices  brought  by  the 
congregation  ("IH^)  on  new  moons  and  the  various  festivals  which 
the  Scriptures  describe  as  a  sin-offering  or  as  intended  to  make  atone- 
ment (cf.  Lev.  23  19  ;  and  Num.  28  15.  22.  29  ;  29  4.  9.  I6.  19.  22.  25.  28.  31. 
34.  38)  are  limited  in  their  efficacy  to  Levitical  impurity.  This  is  also 
the  case  with  the  various  sin-offerings  brought  on  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, as  detailed  in  Lev.,  ch.  16.  An  exception  is  made  with  reference 
to  the  scapegoat,  whose  atonement  extends  to  all  possible  cases.  See 
especially  Tosephta  Shebuoth,  p.  445,  where  the  importance  of  Levitical 
purity  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  any  breach  against  it  was  atoned  for 
by  not  less  than  thirty-two  sacrifices  every  year.  Cf.  also  Maimonides, 
mj:tr,  3  9  and  1 1  9.  See  also  Maimonides,  nmtrn,  i  2.  For  the  state- 
ment of  Maimonides,  that  the  scapegoat  atones  in  lighter  transgressions 
even  without  repentance,  see  j^K  ^mtfi  by  R.  Eleazar  Rokeach  (in 
Mishneh  Tor  ah,  ed.  Warsaw,  1900),  that  it  refers  only  to  cases  when 
the  person  remained  ignorant  of  his  sin,  Ulin  KT>. 

1  See  T.  K.,  83  a.     Cf.  2\%o  Jer.   Voma,  45  c. 

2  This  is  the  general  opinion  of  the  Rabbis.    See   T.  K.,  102  a  ;  Jer. 
Yoma,  45  b  ;    and  B.  T.,  ibid.,  85  b.      Cf.  Maimonides,  nnit:'n,  ch.  3. 

The  contrary  opinion  of  R.  Judah,  the  Patriarch,  forms  the  only  excep- 
tion and  stands  entirely  isolated. 


FORGIVENESS  AND   RECONCILIATION  303 

Day  of  Atonement  loses  its  atoning  power  until  proper 
restitution  is  made  to  the  wronged  person.  "Matters 
between  thee  and  the  Omnipresent  they  forgive  thee; 
matters  between  thee  and  thy  fellow-man  they  forgive 
not  until  thou  hast  appeased  thy  neighbour."  ^  In  such 
matters  touching  one's  fellow-man  God  neither  respects 
persons  nor  will  he  by  any  means  clear  the  guilty.^  But 
apparently,  in  wronging  one's  fellow-man,  there  is  also 
an  offence  against  the  majesty  of  God.  Whence  the  for- 
mula in  the  case  of  asking  forgiveness  for  the  injury  done 
to  a  man  who  died  before  satisfaction  could  be  given 
him  is,  "I  have  sinned  against  the  Lord,  the  God  of 
Israel,  and  against  the  man  I  have  injured."  ^  Man  is 
thus  also  in  need  of  the  pardon  of  heaven,  besides  the 
achieved  reconciliation  from  his  fellow-man  or  through 
the  worldly  tribunal.  Through  these  conditions,  the 
Day  of  Atonement  becomes  practically  the  great  Day  of 
Repentance,  the  culmination  of  the  Ten  Days  of  Re- 
pentance. It  brings  with  itself  purification,  the  Father 
in  Heaven  making  white  the  sin  committed  by  the  son, 
by  his  forgiveness  and  pardon.'*  "It  is  the  Day  of  the 
Lord,  great  and  very  terrible,"  inasmuch  as  it  becomes 
a  day  of  judgement,^  but  also  the  Day  of  Salvation.^ 

1  T.  K.,  ?>ia\    Yoma,  85  «. 

2  See  Sifre  Zuta  as  reproduced  by  Yalkut  to  Pent.,  §  711,  and 
Num.  R.,  1 1  6.  Cf.  Rosh  Hashanah,  I'j  b.  The  Rabbinic  interpretation 
deals  there  with  the  seeming  contradiction  between  Num.  6  26  and 
Deut.  10  17. 

^  See  Yoma,  87  a.     See  also  Mishnah,  Baba  Kama,  8  7. 

*  M.  T.y  9  4.  5  See  Tan.,  Ths\  2.  6  p.  ^,^  17^  3. 


3^4 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 


"  Israel  is  steeped  in  sin  through  the  Evil  Yezer  in  their 
body,  but  they  do  repentance  and  the  Lord  forgives 
their  sins  every  year,  and  renev^^s  their  heart  to  fear 
him."  ^  "  On  the  Day  of  Atonement  I  will  create  you 
a  new  creation."  ^  It  is  thus  a  penitential  day  in  the 
full  and  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word. 

Death  and  suffering  may  be  viewed  either  as  a 
punishment  satisfying  the  claims  of  justice  or  as  an 
atonement,  bringing  pardon  and  forgiveness  and  recon- 
ciling man  with  God.  The  first  aspect  finds  its  most 
emphatic  and  most  solemn  expression  in  the  following 
Tannaitic  statement:  The  born  are  to  die;  and  the 
dead  to  revive;  and  the  living  to  be  judged;  for  to 
know,  and  to  notify,  and  that  it  may  be  known,  that  he 
is  the  framer,  and  he  the  creator,  and  he  the  discerner, 
and  he  the  judge,  and  he  the  witness,  and  he  the  com- 
plainant, and  he  is  about  to  judge,  with  whom  there  is 
no  iniquity,  nor  forget  fulness,  nor  respect  of  persons, 
nor  taking  of  bribe,  for  all  is  his,  and  know  that  all  is 
according  to  reckoning.  Let  not  thine  Yezer  assure 
thee  that  the  grave  is  a  place  of  refuge  for  thee ;  for 
perforce  thou  wast  framed,  and  perforce  thou  wast 
born,  and  perforce  thou  livest,  and  perforce  thou  diest, 
and  perforce  thou  art  about  to  give  account  and  reck- 
oning before  the  King  of  the  king  of  kings,  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he.^  But  "  the  judgement  (to  proceed 
with  another  Tannaitic  statement  of  R.  Akiba)  is  a 

^  Exod.  J?.,  I  6.  ^P.J^. ,169  a. 

8  Aboth,  4  22.     Cf.  Taylor,  4  31-32  ;  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  2  502. 


FORGIVENESS  AND  RECONCILIATION         30$ 

judgement  of  truth."  ^  And  when  Pappos,  on  the  au- 
thority of  Job  23  13,  expressed  views  implying  a  certain 
arbitrariness  on  the  part  of  God  because  of  his  being 
One  (alone),  he  was  severely  rebuked  by  R.  Akiba,  the 
latter  Rabbi  interpreting  the  meaning  of  the  verse  men- 
tioned, "  There  is  nothing  to  answer  to  the  words  of 
him  by  whose  word  the  world  was  called  into  existence, 
for  he  judges  all  in  truth  and  everything  in  judgement 
(justice)."  ^  The  same  thought  is  somewhat  differently 
expressed  by  another  Rabbi,  in  allusion  to  Deut.  32  4: 
"  '  He  is  the  Rock,  his  work  is  perfect :  for  all  his  ways 
are  judgement:  a  God  of  truth  and  without  iniquity, 
just  and  right  is  he.'  His  work  is  perfect  towards  all 
who  come  into  the  world  (mankind),  and  none  must  al- 
lege that  there  is  the  sUghtest  injustice.  Nobody  must 
brood  upon  and  ask,  why  was  the  generation  of  the 
deluge  swept  away  by  water ;  why  was  the  generation 
of  the  Tower  of  Babel  scattered  over  all  the  world; 
why  were  the  generations  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  con- 
sumed by  fire  and  brimstone ;  why  was  Aaron  found 
worthy  to  be  endowed  with  the  priesthood ;  why  was 
David  worthy  to  be  presented  wiih  the  kingdom;  and 
why  were  Korah  and  his  congregation  swallowed  up  by 
the  earth?  .  .  .     He  sits  in  judgement  against  every 

1  Ado^A,  3  15. 

2  See  Mechilta,  i"},  a  ;  Cant.  R.,  I  9.  The  parallel  in  Tan.  B.,2^h, 
to  the  effect  that  God  occupies  only  the  position  of  the  president  of  the 
heavenly  court  composed  of  angels,  seems  to  be  a  younger  paraphrase 
of  the  statement  of  R.  Akiba.  See  Exod.  R.,  6  1.  Cf.  Bacher,  Ag, 
Tan.,  3  26. 

X 


3o6     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

one  and  gives  every  one  what  is  due  to  him."  ^  It  is 
with  reference  to  the  same  verse  (Deut.  32  4)  that  a 
later  Rabbi  makes  the  remark  to  the  ejffect :  He  who 
says  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he  (or  the  Merciful 
One),  is  loose  (or  lax)  in  his  dealing  out  justice,  let 
his  life  become  loose.  He  is  long-suffering  but  collects 
his  (debt)  in  the  end.^  In  another  place  the  same 
thought  is  expressed  in  the  words:  God  says,  '' I  am 
the  merciful  one,  but  also  a  judge  to  punish."  ^ 

It  should,  however,  be  remarked  that  the  same 
R.  Akiba,  who  insists  on  the  strict  (true)  judgement  of 
God,  teaches  also  that  the  world  is  judged  by  grace.* 

1  See  Si/re,  133  a.  Cf.  also  D^tT^n^Itt  tSpb,  ed.  Werthheimer,  p.  6  b, 
with  reference  to  Job  ii  7. 

2  See  Baba  Kama,  50  a  ;  Jer.  Shekalim,  480^;  M.  T.,  lo  3,  text 
and  notes. 

3  Gen.R.,  166. 

*  Aboth,  3  15.  Cf.  Taylor,  3  24.  It  should  be  remarked  that  this 
sentence  is  followed  in  the  editions  by  the  words  Mti^UXSn  ^Tl  ''Sb  blDHT 
("everything  is  according  to  the  majority  of  the  actions").  This 
reading  receives  some  support  from  Kiddushin,  40  a,  and  Eccles.  R., 
10  1,  that  both  the  world  and  the  individual  are  judged  according  to 
the  majority  of  good  actions.  Cf.  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.,  i  282.  But  there 
are  also  other  readings,  as  "  But  not  everything  is  according  to  the 
majority  of  deeds  ;  "  or  merely,  "  But  not  according  to  the  deed."  Cf. 
Taylor,  ibid.,  and  his  Appendix,  p.  153.  From  Jer.  Kiddushin,  61  d, 
it  would  seem  that  this  insistence  upon  a  majority  of  good  actions 
applies  only  to  the  judgement  in  the  next  world,  but  in  this  world  even 
one  good  action  can  save  a  man.  If  we  should  assume  that  this  repre- 
sents also  the  opinion  of  R.  Akiba,  there  would  be  no  real  contradic- 
tion. Cf.  A.  R.  N.,  81  b,  and  the  commentary  to  Aboth  in  Machsor 
Vitri,  p.  514,  where  Aboth  3  15  is  explained  in  the  way  just  indicated. 
Cf.  above,  p.  15,  note  i. 


FORGIVENESS  AND   RECONCILIATION 


307 


But  it  would  seem  that  this  grace  is  only  confined  to 
this  world.  In  the  next  world  there  is  only  strict 
justice  prevailing.  Even  Israel,  apparently,  enjoying 
otherwise  so  many  privileges,  is  not  exempt  from  the 
punishment  awaiting  the  sinners  in  the  next  world. 
When  Moses  ascended  from  hell,  he  prayed,  ''  May 
it  be  thy  will  .  .  .  that  thou  savest  thy  people  Israel 
from  this  place."  But  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
said  unto  him,  ''  Moses,  there  is  not  with  me  respect 
of  persons,  nor  taking  of  bribe.  He  who  will  do  good 
will  be  in  the  Paradise,  he  who  will  do  evil  will  be 
in  hell,  as  it  is  said,  '  I  the  Lord  search  the  heart,  I 
try  the  reins,  even  to  give  every  man  according  to  his 
ways,  and  according  to  the  fruit  of  his  doings '  ( Jer. 
17  10)."  ^  But  even  in  this  world,  "  when  man  sees 
that  sufifering  comes  upon  him,  he  has  to  examine  his 
actions,"  to  see  whether  it  has  not  come  as  a  punish- 
ment for  his  sins.  Likewise  is  death  considered,  in 
the  majority  of  cases  at  least,  as  a  punishment  for 
the  sin  of  the  individual.  For  God  is  not  suspected 
to  execute  judgement  without  justice.^ 

But  besides  satisfying  the  claims  of  a  just  God  or  of 
justice,  death  and  suffering  also  atone  and  reconcile 

1  See  mU^n'Itt  ^ni,  ed.  Werthheimer,  4  29  a.  Against  this  view  are 
Cant.  ^.,8  8;  Exod.  R.,  30  I6.  Cf.  also  M.  T.,  15  24,  text  and  notes, 
but  the  view  given  in  the  text  appears  to  be  the  older  one.  Cf.  Sifre, 
12  b,  text  and  notes  5  and  6,  and  Num.  R.,  11  7. 

2  See  Berachoth,  5  a  and  b.  For  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  this 
theory  and  the  manner  in  which  the  Rabbis  tried  to  solve  it,  see 
Schechter,  Studies  in  Judaism,  Essay  on  Retribution,  p.  259  seq. 


3o8      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

man  with  God.  They  form,  according  to  the  Rabbis, 
two  of  the  four  (or  the  three)  kinds  of  atonement  taught 
by  the  Scriptures/  Self-inflicted  suffering,  such  as  fast- 
ing, assumes  naturally  the  aspect  of  sacrifices.  Hence 
the  prayer  of  a  Rabbi  after  a  fast  that  the  fat  and  blood 
which  he  lost  through  the  fast  should  be  accounted  to 
him  as  a  sacrifice  on  the  altar,  and  have  the  same  effect 
as  the  sacrifice  in  the  days  of  yore  when  the  Holy  Tem- 
ple was  in  existence.^  This  was  considered  as  a  kind 
of  self-sacrifice,  or  rather  sacrifice  of  his  soul,^  but  this 
notion  was  not  entirely  limited  to  voluntary  suffering. 
Every  loss  of  property  sustained  by  man,  as  well  as 
every  kind  of  physical  suffering  which  he  happens  to 
undergo,  are  considered  an  atonement.  "A  man 
stumbled  in  a  transgression,  and  became  guilty  of  death 
by  heaven  (in  contradistinction  of  the  worldly  tri- 
bunal). By  what  means  shall  he  atone  ?  His  ox  died, 
his  chickens  went  astray,  or  he  stumbled  on  his  finger 
so  that  blood  came  out  —  by  these  losses  and  suffer- 
ing, his  debts  (to  the  account  of  heaven  against  him) 
are    considered    paid."  ^     Indeed,    the    loss   of   blood 

1  See  Mechilta,  68  b  and  69  a.  A.  R.  N.,  44  b,  text  and  notes  for 
other  references.  The  other  kinds  of  atonement  are  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment and  Repentance,  but  since  they  are  all  accompanied  by  repent- 
ance, there  are  practically  only  three  kinds.  The  ^Scriptural  references 
are  Lev.  16  30,  for  the  Day  of  Atonement,  Isa.  22  14,  for  death,  Jer.  3  22, 
for  repentance,  and  Ps.  89  33,  for  suffering. 

2  See  Berachoth,  1 7  a.     Cf  M.  T.,  25  3. 

3  See  Lev.  R.,  3  4  and  commentaries. 

*  See/,?r.  Sotah,  I'j  a;    Eccles.  R.,  7  27;   Pesachim,  \\%a. 


FORGIVENESS  AND   RECONCILIATION         309 

through    any   accident    atones    as    the    blood    of    a 
sacrifice/ 

It  is  further  maintained  that  the  appearance  of 
leprosy  on  the  body  of  a  man  is  the  very  altar  of  atone- 
ment.^ Hence  the  dictum,  ''Beloved  is  suffering,  for 
as  sacrifices  are  atoning,  so  is  suffering  atoning." 
Nay,  suffering  has  even  a  greater  atoning  effect  than 
sacrifice,  inasmuch  as  sacrifice  affects  only  man's 
property,  whilst  suffering  touches  his  very  self.^  "Who 
caused  the  son  to  be  reconciled  to  his  father  (in 
heaven),  if  not  suffering?"  ^  "Therefore,  let  man  re- 
joice in  suffering  more  than  in  prosperity,"  for  it  is 
suffering  through  v^hich  he  receives  pardon  and  for- 
giveness.^ "If  thou  seekest  for  hfe,  hope  for  suffer- 
ing," as  it  is  said,  "And  reproof  of  chastisement  (is) 
the  way  of  Hfe"  (Prov.  6  3).^  Indeed,  the  good  son 
does  not  even  pray  that  the  suffering  should  cease,  but 
says,  "Father,  continue  thy  chastisement."  ^  This  suf- 
fering has  to  be  a  sacrifice  accompanied  by  repentance. 
The  sufferer  has  to  accept  the  suffering  prayerfully  and 
in  a  spirit  of  submission,  and  has  to  recognise  that  the 
visitation  of  God  was  merited  by  him.  Man  knows  well 
in  his  heart  when  weighing  his  deeds  with  the  suffering 
which  came  upon  him  that  he  was  dealt  with  merci- 
fully.®    Indeed,  the  great  difference  between  Israel  and 

1  See  C/iumn,  7  3.  *  Sz/rf,  ibid. 

2  See  Berachoth,  5  <5.  ^  Sifre,  73  b. 

3  See  Sifre,  73  b  and  reference  given  there.  ®  M.  T.,  16. 
7  See  Minor  Tractate,  Se?nachothy  8.  *  Sifre,  ibid. 


3IO     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

the  gentiles,  is  that  the  gentiles  rebel  when  suffering 
comes  upon  them,  and  curse  their  gods;  but  Israel 
becomes  humble  and  prays,  as  it  is  said,  ''I  found 
trouble  and  sorrow.  Then  called  I  upon  the  name  of 
the  Lord,"  etc.  (Ps.  11634).^ 

The  atonement  of  suffering  and  death  is  not  limited 
to  the  suffering  person.  The  atoning  effect  extends  to 
all  the  generation.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
such  sufferers  as  cannot  either  by  reason  of  their 
righteous  life  or  by  their  youth  possibly  have  merited 
the  afflictions  which  have  come  upon  them.  The 
death  of  the  righteous  atones  just  as  well  as  certain  sac- 
rifices.^ '^  They  are  caught  (suffer)  for  the  sins  of  their 
generation.  If  there  are  no  righteous,  the  children  of 
the  schools  (that  is,  the  innocent  young  children)  are 
caught  for  the  sins  of  their  generation."  ^  There  are 
also  applied  to  Moses  the  Scriptural  words,  "And  he 
bore  the  sins  of  many"  (Isa.  53  12),  because  of  his  offer- 
ing himself  as  an  atonement  for  Israel's  sin  with  the 
golden  calf,  being  ready  to  sacrifice  his  very  soul  for 
Israel,  when  he  said,  "And  if  not,  blot  me,  I  pray  thee, 
out  of  thy  book  (that  is,  from  the  Book  of  the  Living), 
which  thou  hast  written"  (Exod.  32  32).'*  This  readi- 
ness to  sacrifice  oneself  for  Israel  is  characteristic  of  all 
the  great  men  of  Israel,  the  patriarchs  and  the  Prophets 

1  See  Mechilta,  72  b  and  reference  given  there.    Cf.  T.  B.^  5  24  b. 

2  See  Moed  Katon,  28  a. 
^  See  Shabbath,  32  b. 

*  Sotah^  i^a,  and  Berachoth,  32  a. 


FORGIVENESS  AND   RECONCILIATION 


311 


acting  in  the  same  way,  whilst  also  some  Rabbis  would, 
on  certain  occasions,  exclaim,  ''  Behold,  I  am  the  atone- 
ment of  Israel."  ^  This  sacrifice  is,  of  course,  volun- 
tary. But  this  is  also  the  case  with  the  sacrifice  on 
the  part  of  the  children  who  in  some  mystical  way  are 
made  to  take  upon  themselves  this  surety.  When 
God  was  about  to  give  the  Torah  to  Israel,  Rab- 
binic legend  relates  that  he  asked  for  some  guarantee 
that  Israel  will  on  its  part  fulfil  the  obligations  which 
the  Revelation  will  devolve  upon  them.  Then  Israel 
offered  as  such  the  patriarchs  and  the  Prophets,  but 
they  were  not  found  sufficiently  free  from  debt  (fault- 
less) to  be  worthy  of  this  confidence.  At  last  they 
offered  their  children,  and  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he,  accepted  them  wiUingly.  But  he  first  asked  them, 
"Will  you  serve  as  surety  for  your  parents,  that  they 
fulfil  the  Torah  which  I  am  about  to  give  them,  and 
that  you  will  suffer  in  case  they  do  not  fulfil  it?" 
They  said,  ''Yes."  Then  the  Act  of  Revelation  began, 
which  also  the  children  witnessed,  even  those  who  were 
still  in  the  embryonic  state,  when  they  gave  their  con- 
sent to  each  commandment  revealed.  This  is  what 
is  said,  ''Out  of  the  mouths  of  babes  and  sucklings 
hast  thou  ordained  strength"  (Ps.  8  2).^ 

1  See  Mechilta,  2  a  ;  Mishnak  Negaim,  2  1.  Cf.  Introduction  to 
S.  E.,  127.  By  patriarchs  is  understood  in  that  place,  David.  Cf.  2 
Samuel  24  17.     Cf.  above,  p.  52  seq. 

2  See  M.  T.,  8  ;  Midrash  Cant.,  i  3  and  references  given  there. 
Cf.  also  above,  pp.  193  and  254. 


312     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

Atoning  power  is  also  ascribed  to  Torah  and  charity. 
The  descendants  of  EH  could  find  no  atonement  by 
sacrifice  and  meat-offering,  but  they  might  receive  par- 
don through  the  occupation  with  the  study  of  the 
Torah  and  acts  of  loving-kindness/  Indeed,  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  foresaw  that  the  Holy  Temple 
would  be  destroyed  and  promised  Israel  that  the  words 
of  the  Torah,  which  is  likened  unto  sacrifices,  will, 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  be  accepted  as  a 
substitute  for  sacrifices.^  Something  similar  is  main- 
tained with  regard  to  acts  of  loving-kindness,  which 
take  the  place  of  sacrifice,  atoning  for  the  sins  of  Israel 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple;  nay,  it  is  even 
maintained  that  acts  of  loving-kindness  or  charity  are 
more  important  than  sacrifices.^  Reference  may  be 
made  here  also  to  the  atoning  effect  ascribed  to  the 
dining-table  in  the  household  of  a  man,  which  is  con- 
sidered, by  reason  of  the  hospitality  offered  on  it  to  the 
poor,  as  the  altar  in  the  Temple,  on  which  the  sacrifices 
were  brought.^  The  chaste  woman  is  also  likened  to 
the  altar;  as  the  altar  atones  (for  the  sins  of  Israel), 
so  she  atones  for  her  house.^ 

1  J^osk  Hashanah,  \%  a. 

2  Tan,,  ^"inS*,  lo.     Cf.  Tan.  B.,  3  35  a, 

3  See  A.  R.  N.,  11  a  and  d,  text  and  notes,  and  Sukkah,  49  b.     See 
above,  p.  308. 

'^  Berachoth,  55  a.     See,  however,  A.  Epstein,  ^T^T\  Tl^K,  p.  117, 
note  126. 

6  Tan.,  rh'^\  6. 


xvin 

REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION 

The  prayer  of  the  Psalmist,  "  Be  merciful  unto  me, 
O  God"  (Ps.  56  2),  is  paraphrased  by  the  Rabbis  in  the 
following  way,  "  Be  merciful  unto  me  that  I  shall  not  be 
brought  to  fall  by  sin,  but  when  I  have  sinned  (God  fore- 
fend)  be  merciful  unto  me  that  I  may  return  in  repent- 
ance." In  another  place  the  same  thought  is  expressed 
in  the  following  way :  The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
says  (unto  man),  ''  I  made  the  Evil  Yezer.  Be  care- 
ful that  he  should  not  make  thee  sin ;  but  if  he  did 
make  thee  sin,  be  eager  to  do  repentance,  then  I  will 
forgive  thy  sins."  And  as  we  have  seen,  repentance 
is  the  remedy  offered  by  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
himself.^  As  it  must  further  be  clear  from  the  preced- 
ing remarks,  it  is  practically  considered  a  necessary  ac- 
companiment of  all  other  modes  of  atonement.  Indeed, 
it  would  seem  as  if  repentance  is  the  only  means 
of  cleaning  the  guilty,  though  God  is  long-suffering, 
and  forgiving  iniquity   and   transgressions.^     Its   im- 

1  M.  T.,  571.  See  also  idid.,  32  : 4.  See  Montefiore  (as  above, 
p.  289,  note  i)  on  the  subject. 

2  See  Si/re  Zuta  as  communicated  in  the  name  of  Ben  Azai  in 
Num.  R.,  117.  Cf.  Yoma,  86  a,  and  Midrash  Prov.,  10.  The  interpre- 
tation is  based  on  Exod.  34  7,  where  the  Rabbis,  in  a  homiletical  way, 
separated  the  infinitive  of  np31  from  the  verb  TX^T  vh. 


314 


SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 


portance  is  so  great  that  it  forms  one  of  the  things 
which  preceded  creation/  as  a  preHminary  condition 
to  the  existence  of  the  world.  "When  he  drew  the 
plan  of  the  world  he  found  that  it  could  not  stand 
(endure)  until  he  had  created  repentance,"  since,  as 
the  early  commentators  explained  it,  the  nature  of  man 
is  so  constituted  that  he  cannot  well  escape  sin.  His 
existence  would  therefore  have  proved  impossible  with- 
out the  remedy  of  repentance.^  In  agreement  with  this 
explanation  is  another  passage  from  a  semi-mystical 
book,  running  thus :  "  Rabbi  Ishmael  said,  '  The  world 
could  never  have  existed  but  for  the  fact  that  repentance 
was  created  (first),  and  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
stretches  out  his  right  hand  to  receive  penitence  every 
day.'  The  sages  said,  'After  God  thought  to  create 
the  Evil  Yezer  he  began  to  regret  it,  but  prepared  the 
cure  before  the  affliction,  and  created  repentance.'"  ^ 
»  God  not  only  created  repentance,  but  he  continues 
to  instruct  mankind  in  repentance.  "Good  and  up- 
right is  the  Lord,  therefore  will  he  teach  sinners  in  the 
way"  (Ps.  25  8).  This  way  is,  as  the  Rabbis  explained, 
the  way  of  repentance  which  God  points  out  to  the 

1  See  Gen.  R.,  i  4,  and  Pesackim,  54  a,  and  references,  especially 
M.  T.,  9  11,  text  and  note  69. 

2  See  P.  P.  P.y  II;  cf.  MHG.,  p.  8,  and  the  commentary  on  the 
Sefer  Yezirah^  of  R.  Jehudah  Barzillai  of  Barcelona,  pp.  88  and  96. 
Cf.  also  above,  p.  128. 

2  Quoted  by  a  commentary  to  Aboth  in  Ms.  (in  the  Library  of  the 
Jewish  Theological  Seminary)  forming  a  kind  of  Yalkut  to  this  Trac- 
tate (22  a),  The  use  of  the  word  D\"I7X  in  the  text  would  point  to 
the  Yelamdenu  as  the  original  source. 


REPENTANCE:   MEANS   OF   RECONCILIATION 


315 


sinner/  In  other  places,  the  Rabbis  speak  of  the 
''doors  of  repentance,"  or  "the  gates  of  repentance," 
which  are  hkewise  opened  by  God  himself.^  Such  a 
"door"  God  opened  to  Adam  after  his  fall,  saying  unto 
him,'  "Do  repentance,"  but  of  this  offer  he  did  not 
avail  himself;  whereupon  he  was  expelled  from  Para- 
dise.^ Adam  only  learned  the  force  of  repentance  from 
his  son  Cain,  whom  God  established  as  a  "mark" 
(or  standard,  example)  for  penitence/  He  then  sub- 
mitted to  a  course  of  repentance  and  prayed,  "Lord 
of  the  world,  remove  my  sin  from  me  and  accept  my 
repentance,  so  that  all  generations  should  learn  that 
there  is  repentance  and  that  thou  hast  accepted  the 
repentance  of  those  who  return  unto  thee."  ^  It  is 
further  recorded  that  God  gave  warning  (by  certain 
phenomena  in  nature)  and  opportunity  for  repentance 
to  the  generation  of  the  deluge,®  the  generation  of  the 
Tower  of  Babel,  ^  as  well  as  to  the  men  of  Sodom  ^  in 

1  See>r.  Makkoth,  31  ./;  P.K.,  i^^b',  M.  7".,  25  10 ;  and  Yalkut 
Machiri  to  this  verse.     Cf.  Sanhedrin^  105  a,  on  Isa.  28 :  26,  13"n\ 

2  See  P.  K.,  157  «;  Deut.  i?.,  2  12  and  references.  See  also  M. 
Griinbaum,  Gesanwielte  Aufs'dtze,  etc.,  pp.  505  seq.  and  510  seq, 

2  See  Gen.  J^.,  21  a;  P.  R.,  26  b,  text  and  notes. 
*  See  Gen.  R.,  22  12  and  13. 

5  See  P.  R.  E.,  ch.  20  j  cf.  Erubin,  18  3  and  Tan.y  l?^nTn,  §  9.  This 
is  in  contradiction  with  another  Agadic  statement  which  describes 
Reuben,  the  first-born  of  Jacob,  as  the  first  man  to  do  repentance. 
Cf.  Gen.  R.,  82  11  and  84  19. 

6  See  A.  R.  JV.y  i  32  and  reference  given  there. 
'  See  Gen.  R.,  38  9. 

8  See  Gen.  R.,  49  6  ;   cf.  also  Tan.  TO,  18,  and  rh^^,  15. 


3i6     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

spite  of  their  open  rebellion  against  God.  A  similar 
opportunity  was  given  to  Korah,  Moses  deferring  the 
action  of  offering  the  incense  which  brought  about  the 
catastrophe  until  "to-morrow,"  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  him  and  his  adherents  time  to  reconsider  their 
evil  behaviour  and  to  repent.^  With  regard  to  Israel, 
it  is  stated  that  the  Divine  Presence  tarried,  before 
the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  on  the  Mount  of  Olives 
for  not  less  than  thirteen  and  a  half  years  (after 
it  removed  from  the  Temple),  proclaiming  three  times 
a  day,  "Return,  ye  backsliding  children,  and  I  will 
heal  your  backslidings "  (Jer.  3  22). ^  When  the  Temple 
was  destroyed,  God  prays,  "May  it  be  my  will  that  I 
exterminate  the  Evil  Yezer  that  brings  my  children 
to  sin,  so  that  they  do  repentance  and  I  hasten  the 
rebuilding  of  my  house  and  my  sanctuary."^  But  this 
mercy  of  God  is  not  confined  to  Israel,  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  hoping  for  the  nations  of  the  world 
that  they  might  do  repentance  that  he  should  bring 
them  near  under  his  wings  (by  becoming  proselytes)/ 
The  example  set  by  God  (in  praying  for  the  regen- 
eration of  the  sinner)  is  imitated  both  by  Moses  and 
by  Aaron,  who  prayed  for  the  sinners  in  Israel  that 
they  might  become  penitents.^    It  is  also  narrated  that 

1  See  Num.  R.,  i8  7  ;   cf.  Deut.  i6  5  seq. 

2  See  P.  K.,  115  a,  text  and  notes  ;   and  Lament.  R.,  ed.  Buber,  15  (J, 
text  and  notes. 

3  M.  T.,  76  3.     See  text  and  notes. 

*  See  Num.  R.,  10  1 ;    Cant.  R.,  61  1  (§  5). 
5  See  So/a/i,  14  a,  and  T.  RT.,  46  a. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     317 

the  Saint  Abba  Hilkia  had  certain  outlaws  in  his 
neighbourhood  for  whose  death  he  prayed,  but 
his  wife  prayed  that  they  might  return  to  repentance, 
and  that  her  actions  were  approved  by  signs  from 
heaven.^ 

It  is  further  assumed  that  great  moral  catastrophes 
were  almost  providentially  brought  about  with  the 
purpose  of  setting  the  good  example  to  sinners  that  no 
sin  is  so  great  as  to  make  repentance  impossible.  As 
such  examples,  are  cited :  David,  who  committed  the 
sin  of  adultery;  and  the  whole  congregation  of  Israel, 
the  contemporaries  of  Moses,  who  worshipped  the 
golden  calf.  Neither  David  nor  Israel,  considering 
their  high  moral  standing,  were,  the  Rabbis  declare, 
capable  of  such  crimes,  but  it  was  brought  about  against 
their  own  will,  as  just  stated,  to  give  a  claim  for  repent- 
ance in  the  future  both  in  the  case  of  the  individual, 
as  David,  and  in  the  case  of  the  whole  community, 
as  that  of  the  golden  calf,  in  which  the  whole  of 
Israel  was  involved,  and  thus  showing  that  there  is  no 
room  for  despair  of  reconciliation  with  God,  be  the 
sin  never  so  great  and  all-embracing.^  Indeed,  David 
became  a  "witness  to  the  people,"  bearing  evidence  to 
the  power  of  repentance,  for  "he  who  is  desirous  to  do 
repentance  has  only  to  look   at   David."     Hence,  he 

1  See  Taanith,  23  b.     Cf.  Berachoth,  lo  a,  the  story  of  R.  Meir  and 
Berurya. 

2  See  Abodah  Zarah,    4  b   and    5  a,  text    and  commentaries  ;     cf. 
Shabbath,  65  a. 


3i8      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

is  called  the  man   that   established   the  sublimity  of 
repentance/ 

The  encouragement  of  mankind  to  repentance  is 
carried  so  far  on  the  part  of  heaven  that  the  ''door" 
is  opened  even  when  this  repentance  is  not  entirely 
the  expression  of  real  remorse  and  regret,  having  been 
brought  about  only  by  pressure,  and  furthermore  meant 
to  atone  for  crimes  of  a  most  revolting  kind.  Such  a 
case  is  particularly  that  of  Manasseh,  the  son  of  Heze- 
kiah,  the  wicked  King  of  Judah,  whose  reign  was, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  the  Scriptures,  one  long 
series  of  the  most  atrocious  crimes"  (2  Kings  212  seq, 
and  2  Chron.  33  2  seq.).  "When  he  found  himself  dur- 
ing his  captivity  in  Babel,  in  real  distress,  there  was 
no  idol  he  failed  to  invoke.  .  .  .  But  when  he  saw 
that  they  were  of  no  help  to  him,  he  said,  '  I  remember 
that  my  father  made  me  read,  "When  thou  art  in 
tribulation,  and  all  these  things  are  come  upon  thee, 
even  in  the  latter  days,  if  thou  turn  to  the  Lord,  thy 
God,  and  shalt  be  obedient  unto  his  voice:  For  the 
Lord  thy  God  is  a  merciful  God;  he  will  not  forsake 
thee,  neither  destroy  thee"  (Deut.  430.  31).  I  will  now 
invoke  him.  If  he  will  answer  me,  well ;  if  not,  I  will 
declare  that  all  Powers  are  ahke.'  The  angels  there- 
upon shut  the  openings  of  heaven  and  said  before 
the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,   '  Shall  repentance  avail 

1  See  AI.  T.,  40  2  and  513.  Cf.  Isa.  55  4.  See  also  Moed  Katon^ 
16  b,  and  Rashi's  commentary  as  given  in  the  HpU'^  T^  to  this  passage. 
Cf.  also  Num.  R.  i?>  21,  text  and  reference  given  there. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION      319 

for  a  man  who  placed  an  image  in  the  very  Hechal 
(sanctuary)  ? '  (2  Kings  21  7  and  2  Chron.  33  7).  Then 
the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said,  'If  I  accept  not 
his  repentance,  I  thereby  shut  the  door  against 
all  other  penitents.'  He  then  dug  for  Manasseh's 
repentance  a  special  passage  from  below  the  Throne 
of  Glory  (over  which  the  angels  have  no  control)  and 
through  this  was  heard  Manasseh's  supplication."  ^ 
"  Thus,  if  a  man  would  tell  thee  that  God  receives  not 
the  penitents,  behold  Manasseh,  the  son  of  Hezekiah, 
he  will  bear  evidence  that  no  creature  in  the  world 
ever  committed  before  me  so  many  wicked  deeds  as 
he  did,  yet  in  the  moment  of  repentance  I  received 
him."  ^  Some  Rabbis  even  resented  the  apparently 
ancient  tradition  excluding  Manasseh  from  the  bUss 
of  the  world  to  come,  inasmuch  as  it  may  have  the 
effect  to  "weaken  the  hand  of  penitence,"  that  is,  to 
make  sinners  despair  of  the  efficacy  of  repentance.^ 
Of  Jeroboam  it  is  said  that  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be 
he,  laid  hold  of  him  and  said,  "  Return  (in  repentance), 
and  I  and  the  son  of  Jesse  and  thou  shall  walk  together 
in  Paradise."     The    conceit    of    Jeroboam,    however, 

1  See  P.  K.^  162  a  and  b ;  cf.  /er.  Sanhedrin^  78  r,  and  B.  T. 
Sanhedrin,  103  a;  Lev.  ^.,  30  3  ;  Deut.  R.,  2  20;  Ruth  R.,  5  14  ; 
jP.  R.  E.,  ch.  43;  and  Targum  to  Chron.,  a.  I.  See  also  Ag.  Ber.,  ch.  9, 
and  Sifre,  144  h.  Cf.  also  M.  7".,  4  :  5,  where  the  statement  is  more 
general,  but  is  based  on  the  Manasseh  legend. 

-  See  Num.  R.,  14  1  and  references.  Cf.  also  Gen.  R.,  ed,  Wilna, 
Appendix  on  the  Blessing  of  Jacob,  p.  376,  col.  2,  the  story  there 
about  Cain.  ^  Sanhedrin,  103  a. 


320     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

made  him  refuse  God's  offer,  as  he  was  not  willing  to 
be  second  to  the  son  of  Jesse.  ^  Naturally  such  a 
Teshubah  as  that  of  Manasseh,  undertaken  amidst  suf- 
fering and  through  fear  of  punishment,  is  not  con- 
sidered the  highest  degree  of  repentance,  leaving  man 
in  a  state  of  slavery,  whilst  the  repentance  undertaken 

i  through  the  motive  of  love  reestablishes  man's  child-Uke 

/  relations  to  his  Father  in  Heaven.^ 

This  consideration,  that  nothing  should  be  said  or 
done  which  might  lead  to  the  discouragement  of  the 
penitent,  had  also  an  influence  on  certain  ordinances 
of  the  Rabbis  which  were  introduced  for  the  special 
benefit  of  those  who  "returned."  Thus,  in  certain 
cases,  the  restitution  of  the  article  appropriated  in  a 
dishonest  way  was  not  insisted  upon,  the  robber  being 
allowed  to  repay  its  value  in  money.  It  seems  that 
even  for  the  cattle-drivers  and  the  tax-gatherers  and 
the  publicans,  whose  repentance  meets  with  difficulties 
(because  of  their  plundering  the  community  at  large, 
so  that  they  are  not  in  a  condition  to  make  restitution 
to  the  wronged  person),  certain  provisions  were  made 
to  make  their  repentance  possible.^  The  rule  was 
also  that  they  would  accept  sacrifice  from  sinners  in 
Israel  in  order  that  they  might  return  as  penitents."* 

1  See  Sanhedrin,  102  b. 

2  See  Yoma,  86  a.     See  also  Rabbinowicz,  Variae  Lectiones,  a.l. 

3  D^Dti^n  ri3pn.     See  Eduyoth,  7  9.    See  Baba  Kama,  94  b  and  95  a. 
Cf.  also  Maimonides,  mnKI  rh\^  'H,  i  13. 

4  See  Chullin,  5  a,  and  Maimonides,  m3S"lpn  Hti^Utt,  3  4,  about  the 
various  modifications  of  this  law.     Cf.  also  P.  R.,  192  a. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION      321 

We  find  even  that  friendly  relations  were  entertained 
with  sinners  in  the  hope  that  intercourse  with  saintly 
men  would  engender  in  them  a  thought  of  shame  and 
repentance.  Thus  it  is  said  of  Aaron  the  High  Priest, 
who  "did  turn  many  away  from  iniquity"  (Mai.  2  6), 
when  he  met  a  wicked  man  he  would  offer  him  his 
greetings.  When  the  wicked  man  was  about  to  com- 
mit a  sin,  he  would  say  to  himself,  "Woe  unto  me,  how 
can  I  lift  my  eyes  and  see  Aaron?  I  ought  to  be 
ashamed  before  him  who  gave  me  greetings."  And 
he  would  then  desist  from  sin.^  It  was  also  forbidden 
to  say  to  the  penitent,  "  Remember  thy  actions  of  former 
days,"  such  a  reference  to  the  former  depraved  life  of 
the  penitent  being  considered  an  oppression  and  coming 
under  the  Scriptural  prohibition  of,  "Ye  shall  therefore 
not  oppress  one  another :  but  thou  shalt  fear  thy  God : 
for  I  am  the  Lord,  your  God"  (Lev.  25  17).^ 

The  objection  of  the  angels  to  the  admittance  of 
repentance  is  not  confined  to  such  extraordinary  cases 
as  the  one  of  Manasseh.  As  it  would  seem,  they  op- 
pose repentance  in  general.  "  When  a  man  commits  a 
transgression,  the  angels  come  and  denounce  him,  and 
say,  *  Master  of  the  Universe,  bow  down  thy  heavens, 
O  Lord,  and  come  down:  touch  the  mountains  and 
they  shall  smoke,'  etc.  (that  is,  they  demand  immediate 

1  A.  R.  N.,  24  b.  Cf.  Sanhedrin,  37  <2,  the  story  of  R.  Zera,  who 
entertained  certain  relations  with  the  outlaws  in  his  neighbourhood 
for  the  same  purpose. 

2  See  Baba  Mezia,  58  3. 

Y 


322     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

satisfaction).  But  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  says, 
'Man  may  be  hard  for  the  time,  but  if  he  will  do  re- 
pentance, I  will  receive  him.'"  ^  But  it  should  be 
remarked  that  in  other  places  this  opposition  to  the 
admittance  of  repentance  is  ascribed  to  the  Divine 
attribute  of  strict  justice,  which  is  overruled  by  the 
Divine  attribute  of  mercy.^  Nay,  repentance  is  so  be- 
loved by  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  that  he  is  ready 
to  overrule  his  own  Law  for  its  sake.  It  is  written  in 
the  Torah,  "When  a  man  hath  taken  a  wife  and 
married  her,  and  he  has  found  some  uncleanness  in 
her,  then  let  him  write  a  bill  of  divorcement.  .  .  . 
And  if  the  later  husband  hate  her,  and  write  her  a 
bill  of  divorcement,  .  .  .  her  former  husband  which 
sent  her  away  cannot  take  her  again  to  be  his  wife, 
after  she  is  defiled"  (Deut.  24  1,  3,  and  4).  But  this  is 
not  so  with  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  for  though 
they  have  forsaken  him  and  worshipped  another,  he 
said  unto  them,  "  Do  repentance  and  come  back  unto 
me  and  I  will  receive  you."  ^  It  is  the  right  hand  of 
God  which  is  stretched  out  to  receive  penitence,  against 
the  pleading  of  angels,  and  as  we  may  add  also  against 

1  See  M.  T.,  94  4;  see  also  Yalkut  Machiri  Ps.,  a.  I.,  who  gives 
a  better  reading,  which  is  reproduced  here. 

2  See  Sanhedrin,  103  a,  and  Pesachim,  iig  a.  See  also  Pseudo-Jona- 
than S.  E.  Z.,  p.  37.  This  is  an  interesting  case  of  hypostatised  attri- 
butes, to  which  others  might  be  added.  The  subject  is  still  in  need  of 
a  good  monograph. 

^  P.  P.,  184  «.  Cf.  Yoma,  86  b.  This  homily  forms  a  paraphrase 
of  Jer.  3  1. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     323 

the  view  of  the  Prophets  demanding  punishment  by- 
death,  and  the  decision  of  the  Torah,  demanding  at 
least  a  sacrifice.  The  " right  hand"  represents  the  attri- 
bute of  mercy,  which  is  also  called  "the  strong  hand," 
inasmuch  as  it  has  to  repress  the  attribute  of  strict 
justice.^  This  suggests  that  the  admittance  of  repent- 
ance is  an  act  of  grace  on  the  part  of  God,  as  forgiveness 
in  general  is.  "There  is  no  creature  which  is  not  in 
debt  (or  rather  guilty)  to  God,  but  he  is  merciful  and 
gracious  and  forgives  the  sins  of  the  past,"  when  suc- 
ceeded by  repentance.^  When  the  Holy  One,  blessed 
be  he,  said  to  the  Torah,  "Let  us  make  man  in  our 
image  after  our  likeness,"  the  Torah  answered,  "  Mas- 
ter of  all  worlds,  the  world  is  thine,  but  the  men  thou 
desirest  to  create  are  'of  few  days  and  full  of  trouble' 
and  will  fall  into  the  power  of  sin,  and  if  thou  wilt  not 
defer  thy  anger,  it  is  better  for  him  (man)  that  he  should 
not  come  to  the  world."  Then  the  Holy  One,  blessed 
be  he,  said  to  her,  "Is  it  for  naught  that  I  am  called 
long-suffering  and  abundant  in  goodness?"  ^  "I  am," 
says  God,  "the  same  (in  my  attribute  of  mercy)  before 
man  sins  and  (the  same  in  my  attribute  of  mercy)  after 
man  has  sinned,  if  he  will  do  repentance."  ^    Indeed, 

1  See  Sifre,  50  b.  2  gee  Exod.  R.,  31  1. 

3  See  P.  R.  E.,  ch.  12,  text  and  notes  of  Loria,  especially  his  reference 
to  ch.  3,  ibid.  The  connection  of  the  attribute  of  long-suffering  with 
repentance  is  also  given  in  P.K.,  161  b,  with  allusion  to  Joel  2  13.  Cf. 
Gen.  I  26;   Exod.  34  7;   Job  8  1. 

*  See  Rosh  Hashanah,  \^  b\  cf.  /*./*?.,  145.  The  text  forms  an  inter- 
pretation to  Exod.  34  6,  referring  to  the  two  mentions  of  the  Tetra- 


324     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

repentance  is  described  as  the  good  portion  which  God 
assigned  to  his  world,  which  proved  effective  even  in 
the  case  of  an  Ahab/  and  the  call  to  repentance  em- 
bodied in  the  words  of  Amos,  "Seek  ye  me  and  ye  shall 
live"  (54),  is  considered  as  the  sweet  message.^  The 
sinner  even  receives  the  promise  that  after  a  sincere 
repentance  entered  upon  through  the  motive  of  love 
(of  God)  his  very  intentional  sins  during  his  unre- 
generated  life  will  be  charged  unto  him  as  so  many 
merits.^ 

The  verse  from  Amos  just  quoted  is  paraphrased, 
"  My  children,  what  do  I  ask  of  you  but  seek  me  and 
you  shall  live."  ^  It  is,\s  we  have  just  seen,  the  sweet 
message ;  but  it  assumes  an  endeavour  on  the  part  of 
man  to  break  with  his  sinful  past.^  For,  though  repent- 
ance is,  as  just  pointed  out,  an^act  of  grace,  there  is,  as 
in  other  such  cases,  a  certain  initiative  and  co-opera- 
tion expected  on  the  part  of  man.®  Every  encourage- 
ment is  given  to  the  penitent.  No  false  shame  should 
stand  in  the  way  of  the  repentant  in  seeking  reconcilia- 
tion with  God.     ''  Said  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 

grammaton  in  that  verse,  which  Divine  Name  represents,  in  Rab- 
binic literature,  the  attribute  of  mercy. 

1  See  Jer.  Sanhedrin,  78  b.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  word  n3tt 
should  be  amended  to  Hiritt.  The  sense  then  would  be  that  repentance 
is  one  of  God's  good  gifts  to  the  world. 

2  See  Cant.  J^.,  6  i. 

3  See  Yoma,  86  b.     Cf.  Cant.  R.,  6,  ibid. 

4  See  P.  R.,  158  3;   cf.  also  ibid.,  157  a. 

^  See  Cant.  R.,  ibid.  6  ggg  above,  289. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     325 

to  Jeremiah, '  Go  and  bid  Israel  to  do  repentance.'  He 
went  and  delivered  his  message.  Thereupon  they  said 
to  him,  '  With  what  face  can  we  enter  before  his  pres- 
ence? Have  we  not  made  him  angry;  have  we  not 
provoked  his  wrath?  Are  not  those  mountains  and 
hills  on  which  we  worshipped  the  idols,  still  existing  ? 
We  lie  down  in  our  shame  and  our  confusion  covers 
us.'  He  came  back  to  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he, 
and  said  so  (repeating  their  answer).  Then  God  said 
to  him,  'Go  back  and  tell  them,  "If  you  return  to  me, 
is  it  not  to  your  Father  in  Heaven  to  whom  you  come  ? 
For  I  am  a  Father  to  Israel,  and  Ephraim  is  my  first- 
born." '"  ^  Nor  must  man  despair  because  of  the  quan- 
tity of  his  sins.  When  David,  and  after  him  Ezra,  said, 
"  Our  iniquities  are  increased  over  our  heads  and  our 
trespass  is  grown  up  to  the  heavens,"  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  answered,  "Fear  not  because  of  this 
thing,  even  if  they  (the  sins)  reached  the  very  heaven, 
and  if  you  do  repentance,  I  will  forgive ;  and  not  only 
the  first  heaven  .  .  .  but  even  if  they  reached  the  very 
Throne  of  Glory,  and  if  you  will  do  repentance,  I  will 
receive  you  at  once  (as  it  is  said) :  '  O  Israel,  return  unto 
the  Lord  thy  God '  (Hos.  141)."^  In  another  place,  the 
words  "unto  thy  God"  are  interpreted  to  refer  to  the 
quality  of  sins,  be  they  even  of  such  a  nature  that  they 
touched  the  very  Deity  itself,  as,  for  instance,  when  man 

1  See  P.  K.,  165  a;  cf.  also  Jer.  3  25,  31  9,  and  Hosea  4  13.      See 
also  Tan.  B.,  Introduction,  68  b  and  69  a. 

2  See  P.  R.,  15s  a  ;   cf.  Ps.  38  5;   Ezra  9  6. 


326     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

denied  the  very  root  (the  existence  of  God)  or  com- 
mitted blasphemy.  It  is  customary,  the  Rabbis  say, 
when  a  man  insults  his  neighbour  in  public  and  after 
a  time  he  seeks  for  reconciliation  with  him  that  the 
latter  insist  that  he  should  ask  for  his  pardon  in  pub- 
lic. "  But  with  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  it  is  not 
so.  Man  rises  and  blasphemes  in  the  market-place. 
But  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  says  unto  him,  *Do 
repentance  between  thee  and  me  and  I  will  receive 
thee.'"  ^  And  when  Israel,  under  the  heavy  burden  of 
sin,  says,  "Master  of  the  world,  wilt  thou  receive  us 
if  we  shall  do  repentance?"  God  answers  them,  "I 
have  received  the  repentance  of  Cain  .  .  .  the  repent- 
ance of  Ahab  .  .  .  the  repentance  of  the  men  of  Ana- 
thoth  .  .  .  the  repentance  of  the  men  of  Nineveh 
.  .  .  the  repentance  of  Manasseh  .  .  .  the  repentance  of 
Jehoiachin,  against  all  of  whom  there  were  ordained 
heavy  decrees,  shall  I  not  receive  your  repentance?"  ^ 
indeed,  even  as  David  said,  "  Master  of  the  world, 
thou  art  a  great  God  and  my  sins  are  also  great.  It 
is  only  becoming  for  the  great  God  that  he  should 
forgive  the  great  sins."^ 

Thus  neither  the  quantity  of  sins,  nor  the  quality  of 

sins,  need  make  man  hesitate  to  follow  the  Divine  call 

i  to  repentance.     He  has  only  to  approach,  so  to  speak, 

the  "door"  with  the  determination  of  repentance,  and 

1  See  P.  K.,  163  <5 ;   see  also  S.  E.,  p.  189. 

2  See  P.  K.,  160  a  to  163  b. 

^  See  Lev.  P.,  5  8,  text  and  commentaries. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     327 

it  will  be  widely  opened  for  his  admittance.  Thus  said 
the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  to  Israel,  "Open  unto 
me  the  door  of  repentance,  be  it  even  as  narrow  as  the 
sharp  point  of  a  needle,  and  I  will  open  it  so  wide  that 
whole  wagons  and  chariots  can  pass  through  it."  * 
Indeed,  it  would  seem  that  this  Divine  call  of  repentance 
implies  also  a  certain  mutual  repentance,  so  to  speak, 
or  returning  on  the  part  of  God,  who  meets  Israel  half- 
way. "It  is  to  be  compared  to  the  son  of  a  king 
who  was  removed  from  his  father  for  the  distance  of  a 
hundred  days'  journey.  His  friends  said  to  him, 
'  Return  unto  your  father,'  whereupon  he  rejoined,  '  I 
cannot.'  Then  his  father  sent  a  message  to  him, 
*  Travel  as  much  as  it  is  in  thy  power,  and  I  will  come 
unto  you  for  the  rest  of  the  way.'  And  so  the  Holy 
One,  blessed  be  he,  said,  'Return  unto  me  and  I  willi 
return  unto  you'  (Mai.  37)."^  In  another  place, 
with  reference  to  a  Korahite's  Psalm  (55  7),  we  read, 
"The  sons  of  Korah  said,  'How  long  will  you  say, 
"Turn,  O  backsliding  children"?'  (Jer.  3  m)  whilst 
Israel  said,  ' Return,  O  Lord,  how  long?'  (Ps.  90  is), 
.  .  .  But  neither  thou  (God)  wilt  return  by  thyself,  nor 
will  we  return  by  ourselves,  but  we  will  return  both  to- 
gether as  it  is  said,  '  Turn  us,  O  God  of  our  salvation. 

1  See  Cant  i?.,  5  2  and  5,  and  P.  K.,  163  b,  text  and  notes.  See 
also  Targum  a.  I. 

2  See  P.  P.,  184  3  and  185  a  ;  see  "also  ibid.,  144  a,  the  comparison 
with  the  sick  prince,  where  it  would  seem  that  God  takes  the  initiative 
of  returning  to  Israel  on  his  part. 


328     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

.  .  .  Wilt  thou  not  come  back  and  revive  us?'  (Ps. 
85  4.5  and  6).  As  Ezekiel  said,  '  Behold,  O  my  people, 
I  will  open  your  grave  .  .  .  and  shall  put  my  spirit  in 
you,  and  ye  shall  live'  (Ezek.  37  12-14)."  ^ 

The  statement  that  neither  the  quantity  nor  the 
quality  of  sins  can  prevent  repentance  is  subject  to 
certain  modifications  in  Rabbinic  literature.  The  most 
important,  though  somewhat  obscure,  passage  is  the 
following:  "Five  are  exempt  from  forgiveness:  He 
who  repeatedly  does  repentance  and  repeatedly  sins; 
he  who  sins  in  a  righteous  generation;  he  who  sins 
with  the  intention  to  repeat;  and  he  who  has  in  his 
hands  (on  his  conscience)  the  sin  of  the  profanation  of 
the  Name  of  God."  ^  The  passage  is,  as  just  stated, 
obscure  and  undoubtedly  corrupt,  but  as  with  all  these 
groups  of  numbers,  it  probably  forms  only  a  resume  of 
Tannaitic  statements,  scattered  over  the  Rabbinic  litera- 
ture, bearing  on  the  subject  of  the  efficacy  of  repentance. 
As  such,  the  following  may  be  cited,  in  illustration  and 
elucidation  of  the  text  just  given:  He  who  says,  "I 
will  sin  and  repent,  I  will  sin  and  repent,"  they  do  not 
make  it  possible  for  him  to  repent.^  As  a  reason  is 
given  in  the  Talmud  the  psychological  fact  that  when 
a  man  has  committed  the  same  sin  twice  it  becomes  to 
him  a  thing  permitted  (that  is,  he  ceases  to  consider  it 
a  sin),  and  he  is  therefore  unable  any  more  to  repent  and 

1  See  M.  T.,  85  3  ;  cf.  Lament.  R.,  5  21. 

2  See  A.  R.  N.,  58  b. 

3  See  Mishnah  Yoma,  85  b. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     329 

to  leave  off  doing  it/  The  same  sentiment  is  expressed 
elsewhere  in  the  following  words,  "Let  not  a  man  say, 
'I  shall  commit  ugly  deeds  and  things  unworthy  and 
will  then  bring  a  bull  that  has  much  flesh  which  I  will 
sacrifice  upon  the  altar  and  then  God  will  have  mercy 
upon  me  and  accept  me  as  a  penitent.' "  ^  In  another 
place,  we  read,  "He  who  causes  the  multitudes  to  sin, 
they  do  not  make  it  possible  for  him  to  do  repentance."  ^ 
As  to  the  profanation  of  the  Name  of  God,  we  have  the 
statement  that  "for  him  who  has  committed  this  sin, 
there  is  no  power  in  repentance  to  suspend  (the  punish- 
ment), nor  in  the  Day  of  Atonement  to  atone,  nor  in 
suffering  to  purify,"  full  forgiveness  only  being  obtained 
when  the  sinner  dies.^  For  the  whole  of  the  Torah 
was  only  given  with  the  purpose  to  sanctify  his 
Great  Name.^  From  these  illustrating  passages  it  will 
be  readily  seen  that  the  statement  that  certain  trans- 
gressions are  excluded  from  forgiveness  means  in  most 
cases  that  these  transgressions  are  of  such  a  nature  that 
man  is  not  likely  to  enter  upon  a  course  of  real  repent- 
ance such  as  would  be  followed  by  forgiveness.     Some- 

1  See  Yoma,  87  a. 

2  See  Lev.  R.,  2  12.     See  also  commentaries.     See  also  S.E.,  p.  36. 

3  See  Aboth,  5  18.  See  also  A.  R.  N.,  60  b;  Yonia,  87  a  ;  and  Tosephta 
Yonia,  4.  See  also  Sotah,  47  a.  This  may  perhaps  be  the  meaning  of 
the  clause  in  A.  R.  N.^  "  He  who  sins  in  a  righteous  generation,"  that 
is,  the  generation  by  itself  is  righteous,  but  is  caused  to  sin  by  his  crim- 
inal example. 

4  See  Mechilta^  69  a  ;    Yoma^  86  a. 
6  See  S.  E.,  p.  74. 


330     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

times  the  two  expressions  occur  together.  Thus  we 
read,  "He  who  is  confirmed  (tobm^)  in  transgres- 
sions (that  is,  a  confirmed  or  inveterate  sinner)  cannot 
repent,  and  there  is  never  forgiveness  for  him."  ^  In- 
deed, there  is  a  class  of  sinners  who,  at  the  very  door 
of  Gehenna,  continue  their  rebeUion  and  never  repent.^ 
This  is  even  more  distinctly  seen  from  another  group 
of  numbers  commencing  with  the  words,  "  Twenty-four 
things  prevent  repentance,"  which  include  also  some 
of  those  just  mentioned.  They  are:  "He  who  is 
accustomed  to  slander;  he  who  indulges  in  anger;  he 
who  entertains  evil  thoughts;  he  who  associates  with 
the  wicked;  he  who  looks  at  women;  he  who  shares 
with  thieves;  he  who  says  I  will  sin  and  repent,  I  will 
sin  and  repent;  he  who  exalts  himself  at  the  disgrace 
(expense)  of  his  neighbour;  he  who  separates  himself 
from  the  community ;  he  who  slights  his  masters ;  ^ 
he  who  curses  the  many ;  ^  he  who  prevents  the  many 
from  doing  charity;  he  who  causes  his  neighbour  to 
leave  the  good  way  for  the  evil  way;  he  who  makes 
use  of  the  pledge  of  the  poor ;  ^  he  who  receives  bribery 
with  the  purpose  of  making  others  act  unjustly;  he 
who  finds  lost  goods  and  does  not  return  it  to  its  owner ; 

1  See  M.  T.,  i  22 ;  cf.  Yoma,  86  b.     See  also  A.  R.  N.,  62  a. 

2  See  Erubin,  19  a,  and  M.  T.,  ibid. 

3  Reading  mm  instead  of  VmnK. 

^  Perhaps  we  should  read  T'^t'DXin  instead  of  bbp^Jl,  meaning, 
"  he  who  puts  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of  the  many."  Cf.  the 
expression  :  D^m'?  TbpT\  X^nttH. 

s  See  Deut.  24  12. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION 


ZZ"^ 


he  who  sees  his  children  embracing  a  depraved  Hfe 
and  does  not  protest;  he  who  eats  the  plunder  of  the 
poor  and  the  widows ;  ^  he  who  criticises  the  words  of 
the  wise  man;  he  who  suspects  upright  men;  he  who 
hates  admonition ;  and  he  who  scoffs  at  the  command- 
ments. Of  these  the  Scripture  says,  'Make  the  heart 
of  the  people  fat,  and  make  their  eyes  heavy,  and  shut 
their  eyes;  lest  they  see  with  their  eyes,  and  hear  with 
their  ears,  and  understand  with  their  heart,  and  con- 
vert, and  be  healed'"  (Is.  6  lo).^  But  as  it  is  rightly 
pointed  out  by  the  authorities,  it  is  not  because  real 
repentance  is  unacceptable,  but  because  the  nature  of 
these  sins  is  such  that  they  are  so  habitual,  or  so  little 
conspicuous,  that  man  hardly  looks  upon  them  as  sins; 
or  because  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  making 
proper  restitution.  Maimonides,  who  in  his  Law  of 
Repentance  gives  the  above  passage  with  some  com- 
ments, distinctly  adds  that  though  these  things  delay 
repentance,  they  do  not  make  it  impossible.  ''If  a 
man  does  return,  he  is  considered  a  penitent,  and  has 
a  share  in  the  world  to  come."  ^ 

1  Reading  '^W  instead  of  "llti^  (ox).  There  is,  however,  some  jus- 
tification for  this  latter  reading.     See  Job  24  3.  4. 

2  See  Maimonides,  .l^ltlTl,  ch.  4.  This  group  is  also  known  to 
many  of  the  earlier  post-Talmudic  authorities,  such  as  Alfasi,  the 
Machsor  Vitri,  and  others.  The  original  source  is  unknown,  but 
there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  it  formed  once  a  part  of  the  Minor 
Tractate.  See  Friedmann,  DTlSDi  pp.  7  and  8,  and  his  remarks  there, 
on  which  the  reader  will  find  the  authority  for  the  corrections  given  in 
the  text.  See  also  Friedmann,  ibid.,  p.  8,  for  the  expression  cited  in 
note  47.  3  See  Maimonides,  ibid.y  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 


332     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC  THEOLOGY 

The  "fattening"  of  the  heart  referred  to  above, 
which  makes  man  impervious  to  the  thought  of  repent- 
ance, has  a  close  parallel  in  the  "hardening"  of  the 
heart  used  in  connection  with  Pharaoh.^  But  there 
it  is  God  himself  who  hardens  the  heart  of  Pharaoh 
(Exod.  ID  i).  And  the  Rabbis  felt  the  difficulty,  since 
under  these  conditions  Pharaoh  had  it  no  longer  in 
his  power  to  do  repentance.  The  answer  given  is  that 
"after  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  has  given  man 
warning  three  times  (to  do  repentance)  and  he  did  not 
return,  God  shuts  his  heart  against  repentance  in  order 
to  punish  him  for  his  sins."  ^  "After  the  Holy  One, 
blessed  be  he,  hoped  (waited)  for  the  wicked  that  they 
will  do  repentance,  if  they  do  not,  then  he  takes  away 
their  heart  so  that  they  cannot  return  even  if  they 
want  to.  Nay,  he  makes  it  impossible  for  them  to 
pray."  ^  This  is  in  agreement  with  another  statement 
of  the  Rabbis,  according  to  which  pardon  is  only  granted 
for  three  times,  but  there  is  no  forgiveness  for  the 
fourth  time,**  and  cases  are  recorded  where  men  hear 
voices  from  heaven  giving  them  the  sad  message  that 
there  is  no  hope  for  them.  Others,  again,  feel  them- 
selves such  outcasts  that  they  appeal  to  heaven  and 

1  See  Exod.  7  3,  10  1,  and  ii  10.  2  gee  Exod.  E.,  13  3  and  11  6. 

3  See  Exod.  R.,  1 1  1.  This  homily  seems  to  be  based  on  Job  36  9-13. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  according  to  other  interpretations  God  gave  to 
Pharoah  the  opportunity  of  repentance  to  the  very  last.  See  Exod.  R., 
121  and  especially  13  4. 

*  See  Yoma,  86  b,  in  the  name  of  R.  Jose  b.  Judah.  Cf.  Job  33  29 ; 
Amos  2  4.  6.    The  sense  of  the  passage  is  not  clear.     Cf.  Edeles,  a.  I. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     333 

earth,  to  mountains  and  hills,  to  sun,  moon,  and  planets, 
to  pray  for  them,  which,  however,  decline/  Legend 
also  records  that  the  Prophet  Elisha  made  a  special 
journey  to  Damascus  to  cause  Gehazi  (who  is  supposed 
to  have  stirred  up  people  to  worship  idols)  to  do  repent- 
ance, but  that  Gehazi  referred  him  to  a  tradition  which 
he  had  from  the  Prophet  himself,  that  they  do  not 
make  it  possible  for  him  to  do  repentance  who  causes 
others  to  sin.^  It  seems  also  that  where  reparation  was 
impossible,  repentance  was  also  regarded  as  unaccept- 
able. Such  cases  are :  the  robbery  of  the  public,  as  for 
instance,  the  man  who  gives  a  false  measure,  since  he 
cannot  well  reach  those  whom  he  cheated,^  and  murder* 
and  adultery,^  since  the  wrongs  resulting  from  these  sins 
can  never  be  rectified. 

All  these  qualifications,  however,  have  to  be  taken 
as  mere  hyperboles,  emphasising  and  intensifying  the 
evil  consequences  of  sin,  and  the  difficulty  of  doing 
real  repentance.  The  general  rule  is  that  accepted  by 
all  authorities,  that  there  is  nothing  which  can  stand  in 
the  way  of  the  penitent,  be  the  sin  ever  so  great,^  or  as 

1  See  Chagigah,  25  a,  and  Abodah  Zarah,  \'j  a. 

2  Sotah^  47  a. 

3  Baba  Bathra,  88  b,  z.n^  Jebanioth,  21  a. 
*  Sanhedrin,  1  a. 

5  See  Chagigah,  9  a  and  b,  dind  Jebamotk^  22  b. 

6  T.  J.  Peak,  ly  b;  R.  Saadya  Gaon,  mum  mSllaK,  5  6.  See  also 
Maimonides,  Teshubah,  33  14.  Cf.  Sefer  Chasidim,  Parma,  p.  38.  See 
also  the  Responsa  of  R.  David  b.  Zimra,  2  45,  in  the  section  on  Mai- 
monides.    A  peculiar  case  is  that  given  in  the  Responsa  of  R.  Joseph 


334     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

the  outcasts  above  mentioned  said  after  all  intercession 
was  declined,  "The  matter  is  only  depending  on  me." 
Man  has  only  to  determine  and  he  may  be  sure  of 
acceptance.  Let  not  man  say,  "I  have  sinned  and 
there  is  no  hope  (of  restoration  or  mending)  for  me," 
but  let  him  put  his  confidence  in  the  Holy  One,  blessed 
be  he,  and  he  will  be  received.^  Rather  bold  but  true 
is  the  assertion  of  the  mystic  that  even  a  voice  from 
heaven  telling  man  that  he  is  excluded  from  repent- 
ance should  not  be  obeyed,  it  being  the  will  of  God 
himself  that  man  should  become  importunate  with  his 
prayers  and  supplications,  and  persist  in  his  entreaties 
until  he  finds  admittance  through  the  door  of  repent- 
ance.^ 
As  to  the  nature  of  repentance,  it  is  as  the  word  n^ltm 
c  suggests,  first  of  all  the  returning  from  the  evil  ways, 
that  is,  a  strong  determination  on  the  part  of  the  sinner 
to  break  with  sin.  To  enter  upon  a  course  of  repent- 
ance and  not  to  leave  off  sinning  is  compared  to  the 
man  who  enters  a  bath  with  the  purpose  of  cleansing 
himself  of  a  Levitical  impurity,  but  still  keeps  in  his 
hands  the  dead  reptile  which  is  the  cause  of  all  this 

Trani  (2:8),  where  the  sinner  confesses  to  have  been  especially  guilty 
of  the  three  cardinal  sins,  —  idolatry,  adultery,  and  the  shedding  of 
blood,  and  the  Rabbi  nevertheless  prescribes  for  him  a  course  of  repent- 
ance. 

1  See  M.  T.,  40  3.     See  also  Abodah  Zarah,  17  a,  with  reference  to 
the  outcasts. 

2  See    Reshith   Chochmah,  Section  nii^llp  17.      See  also  Responsa 
of  R.  Joseph  Trani,  2  8. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     335 

impurity.  "  What  shall  he  do  ?  Let  him  throw  away 
the  thing  impure  and  then  take  the  bath  and  he  shall 
be  purified."  ^  In  the  addresses  to  the  people  on  fast 
days,  the  elder  would  say,  among  other  things,  "  My 
brethren,  it  is  not  sackcloth  and  fasts  which  cause  for- 
giveness, but  repentance  and  good  deeds:  for  so  we 
find  of  the  men  of  Nineveh,  that  it  is  not  said  of  them 
that  God  saw  their  sackcloth  and  fasts,  but  that  '  God 
saw  their  works  that  they  turned  from  their  evil  way' 
(Jonah  3  10)."  2 

Repentance  begins  in  thought,  and  its  effect  is  in- 
stantaneous.^ But  it  is  further  followed  up  by  words 
of  confession.  As  Maimonides  puts  it,  "Repentance 
means  that  the  sinner  gives  up  the  sin,  removing  it 
from  his  mind,  and  determining  in  his  heart  not  to 
repeat  the  evil  action  again;  and  so  also  he  must 
regret  his  past  ...  he  must  also  confess  with  his  lips 
and  give  expression  to  the  thoughts  which  he  determined 
in  his  heart."  ^  The  regret  includes  the  feeling  of 
shame,  for  'Ho  him  who  commits  a  transgression  and 

1  See  P.  R.,  182  b.  The  simile  with  the  reptile  occurs  first  in 
Tosephta  Taanith,  i.  QL  Jer.  Taanithy  6^l>;  Lament.  R.,  33;  and 
B.  T.  Taanith,  16  a. 

2  Taanith,  16  a. 

3  See  P.  R.,  185  «  ;  P.  RT.,  16^  b  ;  cf.  Kiddushin,  49  b,  and  Gittin, 
57  b.  Cf.  M.T.f  45  :  4.  The  Rabbinic  expression  is,  "  He  thought  (or 
conceived)  the  thought  of  repentance  in  his  heart  (or  in  his  mind)." 
See  above,  p.  31. 

*  See  Maimonides,  nSllTri,  2  2,  and  ibid.,  i  1.  Cf.  also  Chagigah, 
5  a,  that  forgiveness  depends  on  regret  on  the  part  of  the  sinner.  Cf. 
Dan.  7  7  and  8  ;  Ezra  9  6. 


336     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

afterwards  is  ashamed  of  it,  they  forgive  all  his  sins."  * 
Indeed,  God  asks  nothing  more  of  man  but  that  he 
shall  say  before  him,  "I  have  sinned."^  And  the 
judgement  which  he  brought  on  Jerusalem  was  because 
she  said,  ''I  have  not  sinned."  ^  But  when  man  says, 
"I  have  sinned,"  no  angel  (of  destruction)  can  touch 
him/  That  David  (after  his  sin)  became  worthy  of 
eternal  life  was  because  he  said,  "I  have  sinned."^ 
For  he  who  knows  that  he  sins  and  prays  against  the 
sin  and  fears  the  sin  and  argues  (pleads  or  confesses) 
it  between  him  and  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  shall 
receive  forgiveness.^  And  so  it  is  with  Israel  in  general, 
upon  whom  God  will  have  mercy  as  soon  as  they  will 
have  confessed  their  sins  (as  repentants).''  At  the 
waters  of  Marah,  Israel  was  supplicating  and  praying 
to  their  Father  in  Heaven,  as  a  son  who  implores  his 
father,  and  a  disciple  who  beseeches  his  master,  saying 
unto  him,  "  Master  of  the  world,  we  have  sinned  against 
thee  when  we  murmured  on  the  sea."  ^  Confession  thus 
becomes  an  essential  feature  of  repentance,  preceding 


1  See  Berachoth,  12  b. 

2  See/^r.  Tanith,  65  d.     Cf.  Midrash  Shemuel,  ch.  13. 

3  See  Tan.  B.,  2  ^1  b  ;   cf.  Jer.  2  85. 

4  See  Tan.  B.,  4  ro  a. 
^  See  M.   T.,  511. 

6  See  M.  T.,  51  2. 

7  See  T.  IC.,  112  b;  cf.  Lev.  26  40. 

8  See  Mechilta,  45  b.  Cf.  Exod.  14  11.  Cf.  Jastrow's  Dictionary, 
p.  273,  col.  I,  about  the  correct  reading  of  this  passage.  See  also 
above,  34. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     337 

the  various  kinds  of  atonements/  at  the  same  time  ex- 
pressive of  the  determination  of  man  to  leave  off  sin- 

1  The  most  important  Halachic  aspect  of  this  institution  is  given  in 
Maimonides,  Teshubah,  I  1.  "  If  a  person  has  transgressed  any  law  in 
the  Torah,  be  it  affirmative  or  prohibitive,  whether  intentionally  or  un- 
intentionally, he  is  under  the  obligation  of  confession  before  the  Lord, 
blessed  be  he  ;  as  it  is  said,  When  a  man  or  a  woman  commit  any  sin, 
etc.,  'then  they  should  confess  their  sin'  (Num.  5  6  and  7),  by  which 
is  meant  the  confession  in  words.  This  confession  is  an  affirmative 
command.  How  do  they  confess  ?  One  says,  '  O  God,  I  have  sinned, 
I  have  perverted,  I  have  rebelled  against  thee.  I  have  committed 
such  and  such  an  action,  and  behold,  I  regret  it  and  am  ashamed  of 
my  deeds  and  never  will  I  return  to  that  thing.'  These  are  the 
contents  of  confession.  .  .  .  Likewise,  those  who  bring  a  sin-offering 
or  a  guilt-offering  (for  sins)  committed,  intentionally  or  unintention- 
ally, are  not  atoned  for  by  their  sacrifices  until  they  have  done  repent- 
ance and  uttered  confession  ;  as  it  is  said,  '  And  he  shall  confess 
that  he  has  sinned '  (Lev.  ^5  5).  Likewise,  those  who  are  under  the 
sentence  of  death  or  of  receiving  thirty-nine  lashes  are  not  atoned  for 
by  their  execution  or  by  the  fact  of  their  having  received  the  lashes, 
unless  they  have  first  done  repentance  and  confessed.  Likewise,  he 
who  mjured  his  neighbour  (bodily)  or  damaged  him  in  money  matters, 
though  he  made  restitution  for  what  he  owed  him,  is  not  atoned  for 
until  he  confessed  and  determined  never  to  repeat  the  offence."  The 
statement  in  Maimonides  is  based  on  Si/re  Zuta,  reproduced  in  the 
Yalkut,  I.  §  701,  and  partially  also  in  Numb.  R.,  8  5.  Cf.  also  Fried- 
mann,  Mechilta,  1 21  b^  the  quotation  given  there  from  Maimonides, 
nStXsn  ■'BD,  and  Horowitz,  Monatsschrift  (1906),  pp.  76  and  77.  See 
also  T.K'.,2^b',  Sanhedrin,  \ib',  and  Sifre,  2.  a.  Whether  those  who 
are  about  to  die  a  natural  death  are  also  included  in  the  duty  of  confes- 
sion as  derived  by  the  Rabbis  from  Num.  5  6,  depends  largely  on  the 
reading  D^D^Itt  (killed)  (executed)  or  D^n^  (dying)  in  the  Sifre  and 
Sifre  ZutUy  referred  to,  which  is  difficult  to  determine,  though  there  is 
good  authority  for  the  latter  reading.  Cf.  R.  Isaac  Ibn  Guiath,  HK^ 
D''11?tt',  2  28  b.  In  any  event,  the  institution  of  confession  before  death 
(even  natural)  is  very  ancient.  See  Shabbath,  32  b  ;  Tractate  Senia- 
choth  Zutarti,  ed.  C.  M.  Horowitz,  pp.  30-31,  text  and  the  reference 
z 


338      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

mng}  "He  that  covers  his  sins  shall  not  prosper, 
but  whoso  confesses  (on  the  condition)  with  the  de- 
termination to  forsake  his  sin,  shall  receive  mercy."  ^ 
It  is  in  this  sense  that  confession  is  regarded  as  a 
means  of  killing  the  Yezer,^  and  effects  a  reconcilia- 
tion with  God.  "Take  with  you  words  and  turn 
to  the  Lord"  (Hos.  142).  This  verse  is  paraphrased, 
"The  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  said  unto  Israel, 
*My  children,  I  will  accept  from  you  neither  burnt- 
offerings  nor  sin-offerings  nor  guilt-offerings  nor  meat- 
offerings, but  (I  expect  from  you)  that  you  will  be 
reconciled  unto  me  by  prayer  and  supplication  and  by 
the  direction  of  your  heart  .  .  .  with  confession  and 
prayers  and  tears.'"  ^  It  is  probably  prayer  of  this 
kind,  asking  for  forgiveness  and  acknowledging  the 
sin,  which  is  occasionally  quoted  together  with  repent- 
ance ;  ^    this  being  one  of  the  features  of  repentance, 

given  there  in  the  notes.  See  also  N.  T.,  James  5  I6,  which,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  contents,  relates  to  the  sick  on  the  death-bed,  and  appar- 
ently is  an  echo  of  Ecclus.  38  9-10.  Ancient  is  also  the  confession 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement  (see  Voma,  87  d),  taken  over  probably 
from  the  Temple.  (See  Lev.  16  21;  and  cf.  T.  K.,  82  a;  Voma, 
66  a;  and  /er.  Shebuoth,  i  5.)  It  is  then  extended  to  other  fasts. 
See  M.  T.,  141 :  2.  Cf.  also  Yoma,  87  b,  about  the  confession  of  Raba 
throughout  the  whole  year. 

1  About  the  various  formulas  of  confession,  see/gr.  Yoma,  87  b,  and 
Lev.  7?.,  3  3  ;  P.  P.,  160  b,  text  and  notes.  Cf.  also  Landshut  and  Baer 
in  their  edition  of  the  Prayer  Book. 

2  See  P.  K.t  159  a,  paraphrasing  Prov.  28  13. 

3  See  Lev.  P.,  9:1.  *  See  P.  P.,  198  b. 

5  See  Posh  Hashanah,  16  b;  cf.  P.  K.^  191  a  ;  P.  P.,  200  b  and 
references  given  there. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION 


339 


as  Maimonides  explains  it,  that  the  penitent  should 
constantly  cry  before  God  with  tears  and  supplication.* 
Neither,  however,  the  determination  to  leave  off 
sin  nor  the  regret  of  the  past  and  the  shame  and  con- 
fusion of  sin  expressed  in  confession  and  prayer  seem 
to  have  been  deemed  a  sufficient  guarantee  against  a  re- 
lapse into  the  former  habits  of  sin.  As  R.  Saadya  Gaon 
remarks,  we  may  fairly  rely  on  the  great  majority  of  our 
people  that  during  their  prayer  and  fast  they  do  really 
mean  to  forsake  sin  and  regret  it,  and  seek  atonement; 
but  what  the  Gaon  is  afraid  of  is,  repetition,  that  is, 
relapse  into  sin.  The  Rabbis,  therefore,  think  that 
this  claim  to  real  exemption  from  any  particular  sin  can 
only  be  maintained  after  the  penitent  had  twice  at  least 
the  full  opportunity  to  commit  the  sin  under  which  he 
was  labouring  during  his  unregenerate  life,  and  escaped 
from  it.2  Fasting  is  also  mentioned  together  with  re- 
pentance, indeed,  following  closely  upon  repentance; 
as  it  is  said,  "Therefore  also  now,  saith  the  Lord,  turn 
ye  even  to  me  with  all  your  heart,  and  with  fasting,  and 
with  weeping,  and  with  mourning  "  ^  (Joel  2  12),  but  they 
deal  treacherously  who  fast  without  doing  repentance, 
and  shall  be  put  to  shame. ^    It  is  in  conformity  with 

1  See  Maimonides,  M^ltJ^n,  2  4. 

2  See  Yoma,  86  b.  Some  of  the  best  authorities  omit  the  word 
"twice."     See  above,  p.  333,  note  6,  the  reference  to  R.  Saadya. 

3  M.  T.,  25  5,  with  allusion  to  Ps.  25  3. 

4  Midrash  Prov.,  6:  4.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  copyist 
shortened  the  quotation  from  the  Bible,  omitting  verse  12,  on  which  the 
interpretation  of  the  Midrash  is  based.     See  also  above,  p.   308,  for 


340     SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

this  sentiment,  for  which  there  is  abundant  authority 
both  in  the  Scriptures  and  in  the  Talmud,  that  ascetic 
practices  tending  both  as  a  sacrifice  and  as  a  castiga- 
tion  of  the  flesh,  maldng  relapse  impossible,  become  a 
regular  feature  of  the  penitential  course  in  the  mediaeval 
Rabbinic  literature/ 

But  repentance  is  not  confined  to  the  habitual  sinner 
nor  to  a  particular  time.  True,  the  Rabbis  admit 
repentance  on  the  death-bed.  If  a  man  was  absolutely 
wicked  all  his  days  and  did  repentance  in  the  end,  God 
will  receive  him.^  "For  as  long  as  man  lives,  the 
Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  hopes  for  his  repentance; 
when  he  dies  his  hope  perishes:  as  it  is  said,  'When  a 
wicked  man  dies  his  hope  shall  perish'  (Prov.  ii  7),"  ^ 
denying  the  possibility  of  repentance  to  the  wicked  after 
their  death  even  if  they  desire  to  do  it.*  For  indeed 
this  world  is  like  the  vestibule  before  the  hall,  and  he 
who  has  not  prepared  himself  in  the  vestibule,  how 
shall  he  come  into  the  hall  ?  And  when  the  wicked  say, 
"Leave   us,  and  we  shall  do  repentance,"  the  Holy 

the  quotation  given  there  with  reference  to  fasting,  to  which  any  num- 
ber of  references  might  easily  be  added. 

1  See  Sanhedrin,  2$  a  ;  cf.  Saadya,  ibid.;  Bachye,  mnnbn  mSIH, 
section  nmil^n.  See  especially  Introduction  to  Hpll,  by  Rabbi  Eleazar 
of  Worms,  with  his  four  kinds  of  repentance,  which  is  reproduced 
by  any  number  of  moralists  writing  on  this  subject. 

2  See  Kiddushin,  40  b  ;  cf.  Gen.  R.,  65  22,  the  case  oi  Joseph,  Kn^tt^l^, 
and  of  Yaktwt,  mTn^T  ^^^;  Ruth  R.,  6  4,  the  case  of  Elisha  b.  Abuyah; 
and  Abodah  Zarah,  17  a,  the  case  of  Eleazar  b.  Durdaya. 

3  See  Eccles.  R.,  7  15. 

*  See  Eccles.  Targum,  i  15  and  3  20.     Cf.  P.  R.,  184  a  and  b. 


REPENTANCE:  MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION     341 

One,  blessed  be  he,  says  unto  them,  "Repentance  is 
possible  only  before  death."  ^ 

But  this  death-bed  repentance  is  not  regarded  as  re- 
pentance of  the  highest  order,  though  it  may  secure 
final  salvation.  "Blessed  be  he  who  does  repentance 
when  he  is  still  a  man"  (possessing  still  his  manly 
vigour).^  The  saying  of  the  sage  was,  "Repent  one 
day  before  thy  death,"  but  when  his  disciples  asked 
him,  "How  does  man  know  which  day  he  will  die?" 
he  answered,  "  The  more  reason  that  he  should  repent 
every  day  lest  he  shall  die  on  the  following  day,  so  that 
all  his  life  is  spent  in  repentance."  ^   Hence,  the  benedic- 

^  See  Alidrash  Prov.,  ch.  6 ;  Eccles.  R.,  1:15  and  7:15,  and 
P.  P.  E.,  ch.  43,  text  and  commentaries.  This  is  the  generally  ac- 
cepted view  by  almost  all  Jewish  moralists.  Cf.  commentaries  to  Aboth 
4:  16  and  17,  and  the  Books  of  Discipline  {Sifre  Mussar)  generally. 
There  is,  however,  a  statement  in  the  name  of  R.  Joshua  b.  Levi,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  wicked  will  do  repentance  in  the  Gehenna  and 
justify  upon  themselves  the  judgement  of  God,  which  repentance  will 
contribute  to  their  salvation  in  the  end.  As  it  is  clear,  however,  from 
other  Talmudic  passages,  this  promise  does  not  extend  to  all  classes  of 
sinners.  See  Tosafoth  and  Edeles,  a.  I.  The  saying  of  R.  Joshua  b. 
Levi  may  also  have  some  connection  with  the  Purgatory  state  after 
the  wicked  have  already  suffered  for  a  time.  There  is  also  a  whole 
circle  of  later  Agadoth  in  which  the  wicked  in  the  Gehenna  secure  a 
release  by  their  answering  "  Amen  "  after  the  Kaddish,  to  be  recited 
by  Zerubbabel  on  the  Day  of  Judgement  succeeding  the  Resurrec- 
tion. (?)  See  Friedmann,  DTlSDJ,  pp.  32,  ^3^  text  and  notes  and 
reference  given  there  to  Yalkut  and  Beth  Hammidrash,  ed.  Jellinek. 
Cf.  the  controversy  between  the  Schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai,  Posh 
Hashanah,  \'j  a.     See  also  Nachmanides'  Shaar  Haggetnul. 

2  See  Abodah  Zarah,  ig  a. 

3  See  Aboth,  210.     Cf.  Shabbath,  153  a,  and  Eccles.  P.,  i  7. 


342      SOME  ASPECTS  OF  RABBINIC   THEOLOGY 

tion  in  the  daily  prayer  for  repentance,  running  origi- 
nally/* Turn  thou  us  unto  thee,  O  Lord,  and  we  shall  be 
turned;  renew  our  days  as  of  old.  Blessed  art  thou, 
O  Lord,  who  delightest  in  repentance."  ^  This  is  an 
answer  to  the  call  coming  daily  from  heaven,  exclaim- 
ing, "Return,  ye  backsliding  children."^  The  call, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  especially  heard  on  the 
nine  days  forming  a  preparation  to  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, which,  including  this  latter  day,  constitute  the 
Ten  Penitential  Days.  It  is  on  the  first  of  these  (New 
Year's  Day  —  the  first  of  Tishri),  on  which  the  "Lord 
shall  utter  his  voice"  through  the  sound  of  the  Shofar, 
which  is  an  invitation  to  repentance ;  ^  whilst  all  the 
Ten  Penitential  Days  are  considered  as  an  especial 
time  of  grace  "to  seek  the  Lord  while  he  may  be 
found."  *  The  Day  of  Atonement  forms  the  climax, 
but  it  would  have  no  atoning  efficacy  without  repent- 
ance. These  Ten  Penitential  Days  are  distinguished 
by  special  liturgies  and  by  special  ascetic  practices.^ 

1  See  Schechter,/.  Q.  R.,  lo  654  seg.;  cf.  Dalman,  Die  Worte  Jesu, 
p.  299.  Cf.  Lam.  5  21,  The  text  in  our  prayer-books  omits  the  verse, 
and  substitutes  for  it,  "  Cause  us  to  return,  O  our  Father,  unto  thy 
Law  ;  draw  us  near,  O  our  King,  unto  thy  service,  and  bring  us 
back  in  perfect  repentance  unto  thy  presence.  Blessed,  etc.  .  .  ." 
See  Singer,  p.  46;   Baer,  p.  90. 

2  See  P.  R.  E.,  ch.  15  and  43  and  commentaries. 

3  See  Tan.,  nbtT^,  2  ;   cf.  P.  K.,  187  b.     Cf.  Joel  2  11. 

4  See  Rosh  Hashanah,  18  a,  and  P.  R.,  155  b.  Cf.  Isa.  55  6.  Cf. 
also  Jer.  Bikkurim,  64  d. 

^  See  Tur  Orach  Chayini,  par.  602  and  603,  and  the  commentaries 
given  there.     See  above,  p.  303  seq. 


REPENTANCE:   MEANS  OF  RECONCILIATION 


343 


But  they  are  only  set  apart,  as  already  indicated,  as  a 
special  time  of  grace,  but  not  as  the  only  days  of  re- 
pentance. For  repentance  is  as  wide  as  the  sea,  and 
as  the  sea  has  never  closed  and  man  can  always  be 
cleansed  by  it,  so  is  repentance,  so  that  whenever  man 
desires  to  repent,  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  he,  receives 
him.^ 

1  See  /*.  A'.,  157  a,  and  M.  T.,  65  4  and  references. 


ADDITIONS   AND   CORRECTIONS 

Page  21  seq.,  and  p.  49,  Note  2.  In  connection  with  the  contents  of 
the  2d  chapter,  and  p.  49,  Note  2,  see  Dr.  N.  I.  Weinstein's  Zur 
Genesis  der  Agada,  Frankfurt,  1901.  More  important  in  con- 
nection with  these  contents  is  Dr.  David  Neumark's  learned 
Geschichte  der  Judischen  Philosophie  des  Mittelalters,  Berlin,  1907, 
especially  the  first  chapters  of  this  volume,  which  only  appeared 
recently,  when  our  text  was  nearly  finished  in  press. 

Page  26.     Cancel  "  stay  of  the  world,"  and  corresponding  note. 

Page  55,  Note  i.  See  Si/re,  113  a,  and  Jebamoth,  48  b,  with  reference 
to  Deut.  21  :  13,  where  the  words  hdn  pni  n>2i<  pn  are  explained 
to  mean  ry  (her  former  idols).  As  a  proof  is  given  Jer.  2  :  27, 
"Saying  to  a  stock,  thou  art  my  father;  and  to  a  stone,  thou 
hast  brought  me  forth."  If  this  explanation  reflected  the  pagan 
usage  of  the  Tannaitic  time,  which  is  not  impossible,  we  might 
easily  explain  the  fact  that  some  Rabbis,  at  least,  were  sparing 
with  the  epithet  Father  in  reference  to  the  Deity. 

Page  57,  Note  i.  See  also  R.  Joseph  Ibn  Yachya  in  Tor  ah  Or,  ch. 
77,  where  he  speaks  of  two  fundamental  doctrines,  'r\2  njicNn 
niDiNHD  unSi;  nVi  iny  'n^'i  ijnjNtri  niniSxnD  inSn  |>ni  ijihSn  Nina'. 

Page  100,  Note  i.  Attention  should  be  called  to  the  statement  of  R. 
Simon  b.  Lakish,  in  which  the  d''D!:'  didSd  is  contrasted  with  the 
y-\i<r{  dioSd,  and  the  compliment  is  even  paid  to  the  latter  that  it 
establishes  order  and  law.  See  Gen.  R.  9  :  13,  and  Gen.  R.,  ed. 
Theodore,  p.  73.  The  context  makes  it  clear  that  by  the  King- 
dom of  the  Earth  is  meant  Rome,  but  this  favourable  estimation 
of  the  Roman  Government  does  not  represent  the  general  opinion 
of  the  Jews.  I  found  also  these  terms  in  a  Genizah  fragment 
from  an  unknown  Mechilta  to  Deuteronomy,  In  connection  with 
this,  the  following  extract  from  another  Genizah  fragment  is  in- 
structing. It  forms  the  conclusion  of  the  third  benediction  in 
the  Grace  After  Meals  in  the  House  of  Mourning,  and  read  thus: 
irD-ij  mnDO    IDS  ij>^n3  px     .D-'SB^n-'  pn  vnnnj  njian  ',-i  hdn  ina 

Page  loi.  Note  2,  and  102,  Note  2.  It  is  suggested  by  various 
writers  that  the  saying  of  R.  Hillel  was  directed  against  Chris- 

345 


346  ADDITIONS  AND   CORRECTIONS 

tianity,  which  gave  undue  emphasis  to  the  belief  in  the  Messiah  at 
the  expense  of  the  Law.  R.  Hillel  in  a  certain  measure  found  a 
follower  a  thousand  years  later  in  R.  Joseph  Albo,  who  was 
prompted  probably  by  the  same  tendency.  (See  Ikkanm  4  :  42.) 
And  something  similar  may  be  observed  of  R.  Moses  Sofer  of  the 
nineteenth  century  (Responsa  II,  par.  356),  who  likewise  pro- 
tested against  Maimonides,  who  includes  the  belief  in  the  Messiah 
among  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Judaism,  though  his  protest 
was,  as  it  seems,  less  directed  against  Christianity  than  against 
the  antinomian  tendencies  of  his  time.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  say  that  both  Albo  and  Sofer  considered  the  belief  in  the  ad- 
vent of  Messiah  an  essential  Jewish  doctrine,  though  not  a  fun- 
damental doctrine.  Rashi  explains  the  saying  of  Hillel  to  the 
effect  that  the  future  redemption  of  Israel  will  not  be  by  the  Mes- 
siah, but  by  God  himself.  This  explanation,  though  seeming  a 
little  far-fetched,  becomes  plausible  by  similar  statements  of  other 
Rabbis.  Thus,  with  reference  to  Isa.  35  :  10,  "And  the  redeemed 
of  the  Lord  shall  return,"  a  Rabbi  remarks,  "They  are  the  re- 
deemed of  the  Lord,  and  not  the  redeemed  of  Elijah,  nor  the 
redeemed  of  the  King  Messiah."  (See  M.  T.  106  :  i.)  Again, 
with  reference  to  Deut.  17  :  14,  we  are  told  that  after  the  sad  ex- 
perience Israel  had  with  their  various  kings,  they  began  to 
exclaim:  "We  have  no  desire  for  a  King  any  longer.  We  want 
back  our  first  King,  God;  as  it  is  said,  'The  Lord  is  our  King,  he 
will  save  us'"  (Isa.  ^3  :  22).  Thereupon,  the  Lord  said,  "By 
your  life  I  will  do  so,  as  it  is  said,  'And  the  Lord  shall  be  King 
over  the  earth,  etc.'"  (Zech.  14:9)-  (Deut.  R.  5  :  11.)  The 
Wilna  edition  is  mutilated  by  the  censorship.  (Cf.  also  S.  E., 
Introduction,  p.  26.)  It  is,  however,  not  impossible  that  these 
passages  and  similar  ones  were  provoked  by  polemics  with 
Christians. 

Page  165,  Note  i.  See  t:''N->nS  cm  in  the  Hildesheimer  Juhelschrijt, 
p.  92,  Note  3.  The  author  evidently  confuses  there  the  words 
of  Maimonides  with  those  of  R.  Saadya,  quoted  in  our  text. 

Page  192-193,  Note  i.  The  statement  of  the  Midrash  Zuta  is  prob- 
ably based  on  an  older  Tannaitic  interpretation  of  Deut.  24  :  16. 
Cf.  Hoffmann,  ^toipV  nn^  ^\o^ph  of  the  Mechilta  to  Deut.,  p.  31,  text 
and  notes. 

Page  305,  Note  2.  This  later  version  of  the  statement  of  R.  Akiba 
has  a  parallel  in  the  saying  of  R.  Jochanan.  (See  Jer.  Sanhedrin, 
18  a.)  Cf.  Exod.  R.6:i.  See  Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.  3  :  26.  These 
bold  statements  (all  in  contradiction  to  Aboth,  4  : 8)  have  the 


ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS  347 

purpose  of  refuting  the  tendency  of  making  God's  judgement 
arbitrary  and  despotic. 
Page  324,  Note  3.  Cf.  also  Berachoth,  34  b,  the  well-known  statement 
of  R.  Abahu  with  reference  to  the  high  position  to  be  occupied 
by  the  penitents,  even  higher  than  that  of  the  perfect  righteous. 
See  also  Dr.  Ginzberg's  Genizah  Studies,  p.  377,  reproducing  the 
following  extract  from  an  unknown  Sheelta :  — 

D>pn2f  p><  riJ^iy  r\2wr\  ^^^^^  mpn  injx  '"n  nj^Soi 

"tjiy  h  rna*  ■^hrh  naitrn  i'?;;3  didh  -fNm  d>"idi;;  oniDj 

DiW  'jK'  nyn  m^inS  nx^  nnxi    •  •  S  nraa  iSn  nnx  D"«ja 

.pirn  >ND  jnpSi  piniV  DiVti' 

The  text  is  defective,  but  it  can  hardly  be  doubted,  as  Dr.  Ginz- 

berg  points  out,  ibid.,  p.  351,  that  in  its  completeness  the  com-. 

parison  represented  the  well-known  parable  of  the  prodigal  son  in 

the  N.  T.     Cf.  Num.  R.,  8  :  2. 
Page  331,  Note  2.     Instead  of  "  Note  47,"  read  "p.  330,  Note  4." 
Page  sS3y  Note  6.     See  Meor  Enayim,   by  R.   Azariah  de'    Rossi, 

p.  235,  ed.  Cassel.     (Wilna,  1866.) 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS  AND    BOOKS 
NOT  QUOTED  WITH  FULL  TITLE 


Abarbanel,  Isaac,  n)}Wi  ij'^-o^t:,  Ko- 

nigsberg,  i860. 
Ag.  Ber.  =  Agadath  Bereschith,   ed. 

Buber,  Cracow,  1902,  quoted  by 

chapters. 
Agadath      Shir.      Hashirim,      ed. 

Schechter,  Cambridge,  1896. 
Albo,     Ikkarim,     Pressburg,     1853, 

quoted  by  book  and  chapter. 
A.  R.  N.  =  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan 

recensiones  dvias,  ed.  S.  Schechter, 

Vienna,    1887,  quoted    by  chap- 
ter or  folio. 
Azulai,  nimp  i3nD,  Leghorn,  1793, 

printed   together  with  the   same 

author's  |tn  1">j;>. 
Azulai,  r\DV  -\^^,  Leghorn,  1757. 

Bacher,  Ag.  P.  Am.  =  Die  Agada 
der    Palaestinensischen    Amorder, 

I,  Strassburg,  1892;  II,  ib.,  1896; 
III,  ib.,  1899. 

Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.  =  Die  Agada  der 
Tannaiten,    I,    Strassburg,    1884; 

II,  ib.,  1890. 

Bacher,   Terminologie  =  Die   exege- 

tische  Terminologie  der  jiid.  Tra- 

ditionsliteratur,       I-II,     Leipzig, 

1 899-1 905. 
Bachye  ibn  Bakudah,  niaaSn  n"i3in 

ed.  Sluzki,  Warsaw,  1870. 
Bachye  ibn  Chalwah,  PDpn  no,  ed. 

Breit,  Lemberg,   1880-92, 
Baer,      ^Ni't^""  mia;?,     Roedelheim, 

1868. 
Berliner,   Tar  gum  ~  Tar  gum  Onke- 

los,  I-II,  Berlin,  1884. 
Beth  Talmud,  Periodical  ed.  Fried- 

mann   and   Weiss,   I-V,   Vienna, 

1880-89. 
Blau,  Zur  Einleitung  in  die  Heilige 

Schrift,  Budapest,  1894. 


DE  =  Derek  ErezRabba  in  the  Tal- 
mud, at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
order. 

DEZ  =  Derek  Erez  Zutta,  ed.  A.  J. 
Tawrogi,  Konigsberg  i.  Pr.,  1885. 

Duran,  Simon,  Magen  Abot,  com- 
mentary to  Aboth,  Leipzig,  1855. 

Edeles,  N"tt'-\nD  itrnin,  commentary 

to  the  Talmud,  ed.  Wilna. 
Epstein,  -i^nn  in^N,  Pressburg,  1891. 

Friedmann,  p>xn,  commentary  to 
Ezekiel,  ch.  20,  Vienna,  1888. 

Friedmann,  D-'ncDJ  =  "no^  D'^nsDj 
Ntan  n^Sx.  Pseudo-Seder  Eliahu 
Zuta, Vienna,  1904. 

Ginsburger,  Das  Fragmententar- 
gum  (Thar gum  Jeruschalmi  zum 
Pentateuch),  Berlin,  1899. 

Griinhut,  D''toip'?n  nsD,  I-VI,  Jeru- 
salem, 1898  seq. 

Gudemann,  Cultur geschichte  =  Ge- 
schichte  des  Erziehungswesens  und 
der  Cultur  der  abendlaendischen 
Juden,  I,  Vienna,  1880. 

Hechaluz  XIII  by  Osias  H.  Schorr, 
Vienna,  1889. 

Jellinek,  Bet  ha-Midrasch,  I-IV, 
Leipzig,  1853-57;  V-VI,  Vienna, 
1873-77. 

Jer  =  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  quoted 
by  treatise,  foho,  and  column  of 
ed.  Krotoschin,  1866,  correspond- 
ing to  ed.  Venice,  ca.  1523. 

Joel,  Blicke  =  Blicke  in  die  Reli- 
gions geschichte  zu  An  fang  des 
zweiten  christlichen  Jahrhunderts, 
I-II,  Breslau  and  Leipzig,  1880- 
83. 


349 


350     LIST  OF  BOOKS  NOT  QUOTED  IN  FULL  TITLE 


Judah  Hallevi,  Kuzari,  ed.  Sluzki, 
Leipzig,  1864, 

Kinyan  Tora,  Sixth  chapter  of 
Ahoth,  being  an  appendix, 

Landshut,  n3"i3  mpD  in  Edel- 
mann,  ^h  \vir\  nno,  Konigsberg, 
1845- 

Luzzatto,  Dnt:'^  nSiDD,  Warsaw, 
1889.  An  excellent  edition  with 
German  translation  by  I.  Wohl- 
gemuth appeared  lately,  Berlin, 
1906. 

Machzor  Vitry,  ed.  S.  Hurwitz,  Ber- 
lin, 1889-93. 

Maimonides,  Mishneh  Torah,  Wilna, 
1900,  quoted  by  book,  chapter, 
and  paragraph. 

Maimonides,  Moreh  Nebuchim, 
Warsaw,  1872;  quoted  by  book 
and  chapter. 

Maimon*  L3,  D"nD  =  niXDn  -\i3Dwith 
many  commentaries,  Warsaw, 
1 891,  quoted  by  the  number  of 
the  precepts  (y"D  =  nt^];  nixn)  or 
prohibitions  (n"SD  =  nS  mxD 
ntyyn). 

Mechilta  =  Mechilta  de-Rabbi  Is- 
mael,  ed.  Friedmann,  Vienna, 
1870,  quoted  by  folio. 

Mechilta  of  R.  Simon  =  Mechilta 
de-Rabbi  Simon  b.  Jochai,  ed. 
Hoffmann,  Frankfurt  a.  M.,  1905, 
quoted  by  folio;  often  also  the 
number  of  the  verse  is  given. 

Meir  ibn  Gabbai,  \:^'\pn  mu;j,  War- 
saw, 1883. 

M.H.G=  Midrash  Hag-gadol,  ed. 
S.  Schechter,  I,  Genesis,  Cam- 
bridge, 1902.  The  other  volumes 
are  quoted  from  Mss.  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  author. 

Midrash  Agadah  ed.  B.  =  Aga- 
discher  Commentar  zum  Penta- 
teuch, ed.  Buber,  Vienna,  1894. 


Midrash  Prov.  =  Midrasch  Mischle, 
ed.  Buber,  Wilna,  1893,  quoted 
by  chapter. 

Midrash  Shemuel  B.  =  Midrasch 
Samuel,  ed.  Buber,  Cracow,  1893, 
quoted  by  chapter  and  paragraph. 

Midrasch  Suta,  ed.  Buber,  Berlin, 
1S94,  quoted  by  folio. 

Midrasch  Tannaim  zum  Deutero- 
nomium,  excerpted  from  the 
M.H.G.  by  D.  Hoffmann,  I,  Ber- 
lin, 1908. 

Mishna,  quoted  by  treatise,  chapter, 
and  paragraph.  Occasionally  ed. 
Lowe  =  The  Mishnah  on  which 
the  Palestinian  Talmud  rests,  ed, 
by  W.  H.  Lowe,  Cambridge, 
1883,  is  referred  to. 

M.  T.  =  Midrasch  Tehillim  (Scho- 
cher  Tob),  ed.  Buber,  Wilna, 
1 89 1,  quoted  by  chapter  and 
paragraph. 

Nachmanides,  Shaar  Haggemul, 
Ferrara,  1556. 

Pentateuch  with  Targum  Onkelos, 
Pseudo- Jonathan  ajid  Jerushalmi 
and  the  commentaries  of  Rashi, 
Ibn  Ezra,  Nachmanides,  etc.,  ed, 
Netter,  Vienna,  i860. 

P.  K.  =  Pesikta  von  Rab  Kahana, 
ed.  Buber,  Lyck,  1868,  quoted 
by  folio. 

P.  R.  Pesikta  Rabbati,  ed.  Fried- 
mann, Vienna,  1880,  quoted  by 
folio. 

PRE  =  Pirke  Rabbi  Eliezer  with 
commentary  of  R.  David  Loria 
C?"Ti),  Warsaw,  1852,  quoted  by 
chapter. 

Pseudo- Jonathan  {Targum  Jona- 
than ben  Usiel  zum  Pentateuch), 
ed.  Ginsburger,  Berlin,  1903. 

Pugio  Fidei  by  Raymundus  Martini, 
ed.  Carpzov,  Leipzig,  1687. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  NOT  QUOTED  IN  FULL  TITLE     351 


R  after  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch 
or  the  Five  Scrolls  means  Midrash 
Rabba  with  many  commentaries, 
Wilna,  1878,  quoted  by  chapter 
and  paragraph  of  this  edition, 
except  for  Cant.  R.,  where  the 
numbers  refer  to  chapter  and  verse 
of  the  Biblical  book.  The  intro- 
ductions in  the  beginning  of  La- 
ment. R.  are  quoted  with  their 
respective  numbers. 

R.  Rabbinovicz,  Variae  lectiones  in 
Mischnam  et  in  Talmud  Baby- 
lonicum,  I-XV,  Munich,  1877-86, 
XVI,  Przemysl,  1897. 

Reshith  Chochmah  by  R.  Elijah  de 
Vidas,  Cracow,  1593. 

Responsa  of  R.  David  b.  Zimra  = 
r2-\-\n  n"ia>,  II,  Venice,  1749- 

Responsa  of  the  Geonim,  ed.  Har- 
kavy,  Berlin,  1887  {Studien  und 
Mittheilungen  atis  der  Kaiser- 
lichen  Oeffentlichen  Bibliothek 
zu,  St.  Petersburg,  IV). 

Responsa  of  R.  Isaac  b.  Sheshet 
=  ^"2'''\n  iT'ity,    Constantinople, 

1547- 
Responsa    of    R.     Josef     Trani  = 
wnnn  n"i!i>,  Fiirth,  1768. 

Saadya,  myTi  nuiDN,  Josef ow,  1885. 

S.E.  =  Seder  Eliahu  rabba  und 
Seder  Eliahu  zuta  (Tanna  d'be 
Eliahu),  ed.  Friedmann,  Vienna, 
1900.     Introduction,  ib.,  1902. 

Seder  Rab  Amram,  Warsaw,  1865. 

Semachoth  Zutarti  in  C.  M.  Horo- 
witz, Uralte  Tosefta's,  II-III, 
Frankfurt  a.  M.,  1890,  pp.  28-40. 

Seniachoth  in  the  Talmud  at  the  end 
of  the  fourth  order. 

S.E.Z.  =  Seder  Eliahu  zuta ;  see  S.E. 

Sifre  =  Si/re  debe  Rab,  ed.  Fried- 
mann, Vienna,  1864,  quoted  by 
folio. 

Sifre  Zuta,  a  Tannaitic  commentary 
on  Numbers  known  through  quo- 


tations in  Yalkut  and  M.H.G. 
and  a  fragment  ed.  Schechter 
{Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  VI, 
656-63).  A  collection  of  these 
quotations  was  begun  by  Konigs- 
berger,  Frankfurt  a.  M.,  1894 
and  1907,  and  by  S.  Horovitz  in 
Monatsschrift  f.  Ceschichte  und 
Wissenschaft  des  Judentums,  1905 
seq. 

Simon  Kiara,  niSnj  niD^n,  ed. 
Traub,  Warsaw,  1874.  A  dif- 
ferent version,  ed.  Hildesheimer, 
Berlin,  1888-92. 

Singer,  The  Authorised  Daily  Prayer 
Book  with  a  New  Translation, 
London,  1890. 

Talmud,  ed.  Wilna,  1880-86,  con- 
tains the  commentaries  of  R. 
Chananel,  R.  Gershom,  etc.; 
quoted  by  treatise  and  folio,  all 
editions  having  the  same  pagi- 
nation. 

Tan.  =  Tanchuma ;  quoted  by  sec- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch  and  para- 
graph of  ed.  Lublin,  1879,  with 
commentary  pidv  V^- 

Tan.  B.  =  Midrasch  Tanchuma,  ed. 
by  S.  Buber,  Wilna,  1885,  5  vols., 
quoted  by  volume  (book  of  the 
Pentateuch)  and  folio. 

T.  K.  =  Tor  at  Kohanim,  called  also 
Sifra,  ed.  with  the  commentary 
of  R.  Abraham  b.  David  (t'^n-i), 
by  I.  H.  Weiss,  Vienna,  1862, 
quoted  by  folio  and  column. 

T.  Muller,  Masechet  Soferim,  Leip- 
zig, 1878. 

Tosephta,  quoted  by  folios  of  ed.  M. 
S.  Zukermandel,  Pasewalk,  1881. 
Occasionally  A.  Schwarz,  Tosifta 
juxta  Mischnarum  ordinem  recom- 
posita,  I,  Ordo  Seraim,  Wilna, 
1890,  is  referred  to. 

Tur  Orach  Chayim  by  R.  Jacob  b. 
Asher,  Konigsberg,  1861. 


352      LIST  OF  BOOKS  NOT  QUOTED  IN  FULL  TITLE 


Weiss,  T'n  =  vty-rni  nn  nn  Zur 
Geschichte  der  jiidischen  Tradi- 
tion, I-V,  Vienna,  1 871-91. 

Wertheimer,  niti'mD  in2,  I-IV, 
D-'tt'-nD  DpS  Jerusalem,  1903. 

Wertheimer,  Jerusalem,  1893-97. 

Yalkut  —  Yalkut  Shimeoni,  Frank- 
furt a.  M.,  1687;  Part  I  to  Pen- 
tateuch; Part  II  to  Prophets  and 
Hagiographa,  quoted  by  para- 
graphs. 

Yalkut  Machiri  on  Isa.  =  The 
Yalkut  on  Isaiah  of  Machir  b. 
Abba  Mari,  ed.  Spira,  Berlin, 
1894. 

Yalkut  Machiri  =  Jalkut  Machiri 
zu  den  Psalmen,  ed.  Buber,  Ber- 
dyczew,  1899. 

Yelamdenu,  lost  Midrash  to  the 
Pentateuch,  frequently  excerpted 
by  the  Yalkut  and  others.  Quo- 
tations are  collected  by  L.  Griin- 
hut,  DiiDipiSn  -i£3D,  IV  seq.,  Jeru- 
salem, 1900  seq. 

Zohar,  Krotoschin,  1844-45,  3  vols. 

y-Ti  nvms  =  sa^py  "'3-\t  nrnix,  in 
Jellinek,  Bet  ha-Midrasch,  III, 
pp.  12-64. 

iina,  commentary  to  the  Pentateuch 
by  Bechaye  Ibn  Chalwa,  Am- 
sterdam, 1726. 

on^an  'O,  Parma  =  Das  Buch  der 
Frommen  nach  Cod.  De  Rossi, 
No.  1 133,  ed.  Wistinetzki,  Ber- 
lin, 1 891. 

D>r>'  ns\  R.  Arje  Loeb  Jellin's 
glosses  to  the  Talmud,  Wilna, 
1880-86. 

nnn  T'h  of  R.  Eleazar  b.  Jose  of 
Galilee.  Rules  of  interpretation 
printed  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
Talmud  and  in  the  introduction  to 
M.H.G.     Separate  edition  under 


the  title  dSijj  nOTij,  with  com- 
mentary by  Katzenellenbogen, 
Wilna,  1858. 

DitD  nph,  Lekack-Toh,  commentary 
by  R.  Tobia  b.  Eliezer.  Gene- 
sis and  Exodus,  ed.  Buber;  Le- 
viticus, Numbers,  and  Deuteron- 
omy, ed.  Padua,  Wilna,  1880. 

iin'-nn  =  ^Snii  asi  01  3"in  uniD 
pKHj^^N,  author  of  a  commentary 
to  Midrash  Rabba,  ed.  Wilna, 
1878. 

"'DWn"'i  •'S33  ntDSn  ay  nos  pddd, 
by  Noah  Chajjim  of  Kabrin,  War- 
saw, 1878. 

p"DD  =  j'jp  mXD  -IDD,  by  R.  Isaac  of 
Corbeil,  also  called  nSu  mny, 
Cremona,  1556. 

"iDiDH  iflD,  by  R.  Jehuda  Kalaz, 
Mantua,  1560. 

D>Nn"i  IDD1  by  R.  Eliezer  of  Metz, 
Warsaw,  1881. 

xmjXT  nsD,  Sammlung  agadischer 
Commentare  zum  Buche  Esther, 
ed.  Buber,  Wilna,  1886. 

^pyi  ]'<}},  by  R.  Jacob  ibn  Chabib, 
Wilna,  1883,  3  vols. 

^)-\pn  ij"':]-n  Np-\D  in  Schoenblum, 
D^nnoj     DnsD    r\^^z',     Lemberg, 

1877. 

ni'?D\i  ^p-iD,  Jellinek,  Bet  ha- 
Midrasch,  III,  pp.  83-108;  from 
a  different  Ms.  ed.,  Wertheimer, 
Jerusalem,  1890. 

y'i-\  =  NmS  nn  o-*,  author  of  notes 
to  Midrash  Rabba,  ed.  Wilna, 
1878,  and  a  commentary  to  PRE. 

npn,  by  R.  Eleazar  of  Worms,  War- 
saw, 1880. 

nin'?N;:',  by  R.  Achai  Gaon,  with 
commentary  by  R.  Isaia,  Berlin, 
Dyhernfurt,  1786. 

'?X"\a''»  nnsty,  Amsterdam,  s.  a. 
x"3"in  =  iniSx  ^2-\  Njn,  title  of  the 
old  editions  of  S.E. 


INDEX 


Aaron,  prays  for  the  regeneration 
of  the  sinner,  316;  encourages 
sinners  to  repent,  321. 

Abba  Hilkia,  wife  of,  prays  that 
outlaws  may  repent,  317. 

Abba  Saul,  Rabbi,  on  Imitatio  Dei, 
200,  201-2. 

Abba  Tachna,  illustrates  the  vic- 
tory of  the  Good  Yezer  over  the 
Evil  Yezer,  272-3. 

Abimelech,  protected  by  the  grace 
of  God  against  the  Evil  Yezer, 
283-4. 

Aboth,  Mishnic  tractate,  and  Chasi- 
duth,  209-10. 

Abraham,  God  pays  a  sick  visit  to, 
37;  God  argues  with,  37;  the 
rock,  59;  as  proselytiser,  77,  84, 
93;  the  friend  of  God,  84;  and 
the  kingship  of  God,  83-4 ;  testifies 
for  Israel  against  the  Torah,  129; 
the  world  established  on,  173;  and 
the  Zachuth  of  posterity,  196;  at- 
tacked by  the  Evil  Yezer,  251-2; 
the  merits  of,  guarded  by  Satan, 
268:  has  dominion  over  the  Evil 
Yezer,  271,  275. 

See   also   Fathers,    the;   Patri- 
archs, the. 

Absalom,  alluded  to,  213. 

Abuhah,  Rabbi,  as  a  geologist,  19. 

Accuser,  the.     See  Satan. 

Acha,  Rabbi,  on  the  taint  of  sin  in 
sexual  intercourse,  253. 

Achan,  and  the  doctrine  of  imputed 
sin,  191. 

Adam,  God  at  the  wedding  of,  37, 
203;  acknowledges  God  as  king, 
82,  93;    and  the  doctrine  of  im- 


puted sin,  188;  corrupting  effect 
of  sin  on,  235-6;  the  sin  of,  con- 
ceals the  light  of  the  first  day,  237 ; 
urged  by  God  to  repent,  315. 

Admonition,  hating,  prevents  re- 
pentance, 331. 

Adulterer,  the,  names  for,  224. 

Adultery,  a  cardinal  sin,  205;  ex- 
tended meaning  of,  214;  penalty 
for,  224-5;  removes  the  She- 
chinah,  224-5;  what  is  included 
under,  225;  heresy  a  form  of, 
225-6;  and  the  Evil  Yezer,  250; 
forced  upon  David,  to  make  him 
an  example  of  repentance,  31 7-18; 
not  subject  to  repentance,  333. 

Affirmative  injunctions,  the  num- 
ber of,  138. 

Agadah,  the,  character  of,  3 ;  retells 
the  Bible  stories  with  application 
to  later  conditions,  24-5;  and 
corporeal  terms  applied  to  God, 

35- 
See  also  under  Rabbis,  the. 

Agadic  saying,  on  the  Mizwoth,  138- 
40. 

Ahab,  the  repentance  of,  324,  326. 

Ahaz,  spites  God,  220. 

Akabiah  ben  Mahalaleel,  on  the  con- 
templation of  death  as  a  remedy 
against  the  Evil  Yezer,  276. 

Akiba,  Rabbi,  on  justification  by 
grace  or  works,  15-16;  considers 
the  paternal  relation  between  God 
and  Israel  unconditional,  54;  re- 
joices in  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  71-2;  on  the  justice  of 
God,  304-5;  on  the  grace  of 
God,  306. 


2A 


353 


354 


INDEX 


Alcimus,  high  priest,  alluded  to,  92. 

Allegoric  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture, prejudice  against,  4. 

Allegorising  method,  the,  and  the 
Rabbis,  39-44- 

See  also  Corporeal  terms. 

Alphabet,  the,  endowed  with  life, 
129. 

Amalekites,  the,  impair  the  per- 
fection of  the  kingdom  of  God, 
99-101 ;  identified  with  Esau  and 
Rome,  99. 

Amon,  spites  God,  220. 

Amos,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Mizwoth,  140; 
with  repentance  as  a  sweet  mes- 
sage, 324. 

Anathoth,  the  repentance  of  the 
men  of,  326. 

Ancient  One  of  the  world,  epithet 
for  God,  26. 

Angel  of  Death,  the,  identified  with 
the  Evil  Yezer,  244-5. 

Angels,  the,  surrounding  God,  28, 
32;  lower  than  Israel,  49;  in- 
capable of  sin,  81 ;  object  to  the 
removal  of  the  Torah  from 
heaven,  136;  free  from  the  Evil 
Yezer,  257,  285;  object  to  the  re- 
pentance of  Manasseh,  318-19; 
oppose  repentance  in  general,  321- 
2. 

Anger,  akin  to  idolatry,  224;  habit- 
ual, prevents  repentance,  330. 

Antigonos  of  Socho,  on  purity  of 
motive  in  performance  of  the 
Law,  162. 

Antinomian  influence  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,  4. 

Antinomianism,  and  the  mystic,  78. 

Antoninus,  on  the  time  the  Evil 
Yezer  takes   possession   of   man, 

253- 
Apocalyptic  works,  not  useful  as  a 

source  of  Rabbinic  theology,  5. 
Apocryphal  works,  not  useful  as  a 

source  of  Rabbinic  theology,  5. 


Apologetics,  and  Rabbinic  theology, 

18-19. 

Apostasy,  changes  the  relation  of 
Israel  to  God,  55  n. 

Apostate,  spite,  220. 

Apostles,  the,  meagreness  of  Rab- 
binic literatxire  contemporary 
with,  8. 

Araboth,  the  seventh  heaven,  the 
abode  of  God,  28-9,  30-1,  32. 

Arayoth,  forbidden  sexual  inter- 
course, 211. 

Arbitration  of  disputes,  a  law  of 
goodness,  215. 

Archelaus,  king,  alluded  to,  93. 

Ascetic  practices,  to  guard  against 
relapsing  into  sin,  340;  connected 
with  the  Ten  Penitential  Days, 
342. 

Ascetic  remedies,  against  the  EvU 
Yezer,  277-8. 

Askari.     See  Joseph  Askari. 

Astruc,  alluded  to,  19. 

Atonement,  needed  by  the  dead, 
196;  through  sacrifices  limited  in 
efficacy,  295-7;  resides  in  sac- 
rifices, 300-1 ;  by  sacrifices  in- 
tended for  the  community,  300-1 ; 
through  death  and  suffering,  304, 
307-8;  Scriptural  kinds  of,  308; 
through  children  and  the  right- 
eous, 310-11;  through  the  Torah 
and  charity,  312;  repentance 
must   accompany    all    kinds    of. 

See  also  Forgiveness;    Recon- 
ciliation. 

Atonement,  the  Day  of,  Scriptural 
and  Prophetical  portions  for,  119; 
purifies  Israel,  234;  prayer  on, 
for  grace  to  conquer  the  Evil 
Yezer,  279-80;  atones  for  the  com- 
munity and  the  individual,  301  n.; 
repentance  on,  302-4;  ineffica- 
cious without  repentance,  34-^. 

Attributes,  of  God,  38. 

See  also  Mercy ;    Justic  . 


INDEX 


355 


Avira,  Rabbi,  enumerates  seven 
names  for  the  Evil  Yezer,  243-4- 

Azariah,  justified  in  rebelling  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  107. 

Bachye  Ibn  Bakudah,  on  love  of 
God,  68-9,  72-3;  on  the  joy  of 
the  Law,  151. 

Bachye  Ibn  Chalwah,  on  the  unity 
and  the  kingdom  of  God,  96;  on 
the  joy  of  performing  the  Miz- 
woth,  151. 

Backbiting,  a  form  of  bloodshed, 
227. 

Balaam,  and  the  grace  of  the  reve- 
lation, 134. 

Benaha,  Rabbi,  as  the  forerunner 
of  Astruc,  19. 

Ben  Azai,  on  "The  Book  of  Gen- 
erations of  Adam,"  120. 

Benedictions,  the,  preceding  the 
Prophets  and  Hagiographa,  123; 
convey  the  idea  of  holiness  through 
commandments,  168. 

Berachoth,  Talmud  tractate,  and 
Chasiduth,  210. 

Beth-Hammidrash  (schoolhouse), 
the,  a  refuge  from  the  Evil  Yezer, 

273»  274. 

Blasphemy,  a  sin  of  rebellion,  222; 
called  an  evil  thing,  232 ;  repent- 
ance possible  for,  326. 

Bloodshed,  a  cardinal  sin,  205; 
different  kinds  of,  213;  the  con- 
sequences of,  326-7;  slander,  a 
form  of,  227;  robbery,  a  form 
of,  227-9;  bad  administration  of 
justice,  a  form  of,  229-30;  due  to 
the  Evil  Yezer,  246. 
See  also  Murder. 

Boaz,  banishes  the  Evil  Yezer, 
271. 

Body,  the,  liable  to  sin,  260-1. 

"Book  of  Generations  of  Adam, 
The,"  on  the  dignity  of  man, 
120. 

Bribery,  prevents  repentance,  330. 


Bride,  term  for  the  relation  between 
God  and  Israel,  47 ;  term  applied 
to  the  Sabbath,  154. 

Brother,  term  for  the  relation  be- 
tween God  and  Israel,  47,  56. 

Burnt  offering,  the,  instituted  for 
heresy,  225-6;  the  continual, 
controversy  on  the  atoning  power 
of,  299-300. 

Cabalists,  the,  and  the  creation  of 
the  world,  128. 

See  also  under  Mystic. 

Cain,  makes  the  Evil  Yezer  respon- 
sible for  his  crime,  280-1;  an 
example  of  penitence,  315;  re- 
pentance  of,   acceptable,   326. 

Captives,  objections  to  marriage 
with,    213. 

Cardinal  sins,  the,  enumerated,  205- 
6. 

See  Sins,  the  cardinal. 

Catastrophes,  to  teach  that  repent- 
ance is  possible  for  the  greatest 
sins,  317. 

Chama  ben  Chaninah,  Rabbi, 
quoted,  on  the  imitation  of  God, 
202-3. 

Chambers,  Chapters  of  the,  mys- 
tical description  of  the  heavens, 
29. 

Chaninah  ben  Dosa,  Rabbi,  mir- 
acle-worker, lacks  influence  on 
Jewish  thought,  7;  on  sin  as  the 
cause  of  death,  247. 

Chanukah  Candles,  the  Lighting  of 
the,  as  a  command,  13. 

Chapters  of  the  Chambers,  mysti- 
cal description  of  the  heavens, 
29. 

Charity,  invalidated  by  robbery, 
228;  disparaged  by  the  Evil 
Yezer,  252;  superior  to  sacrifices 
as  a  means  of  atonement,  296, 
312;  the  atoning  power  of,  312; 
preventing,  makes  repentance  im- 
possible, 330. 


356 


INDEX 


Charity  system,  the,  of  the  Rabbis, 

112. 

Chasiduth,  saintliness  supplement- 
ing the  Law,  201,  209;  discrimi- 
nates between  one  and  another 
group  of  laws,  209;  various  defi- 
nitions of,  209-10;  summarised  in 
a  Talmudic  formula,  210;  Eliezer 
of  Worms  on,  210;  abstention 
from  superfluous  things,  accord- 
ing to  Nachmanides,  211-12;  a 
corrective  of  the  Law,  212-14; 
the  reward  of,  217-18. 
See  also  Holiness. 

Chasiduth,  Regulations  of,  by  Elie- 
zer of  Worms,  quoted,  210. 

Chaste  women,  the,  the  atoning 
power  of,  312. 

Chayoth,  the,  surrounding  God,  28. 

Cheating,  not  subject  to  repentance, 

333- 
Cherubim,    the,    surrounding   God, 

32- 

Children,  term  for  the  relation  of 
Israel  to  God,  46,  49  (bis);  not 
saved  by  their  fathers,  178;  and 
the  doctrine  of  imputed  sin,  191, 
192-3;  the  Evil  Yezer  in,  253-5; 
the  death  of,  an  atonement  for 
the  sins  of  adults,  254;  are  with- 
out sin,  269;  the  atoning  power 
of,  310-11. 

See  also  Zachuth,  the,  of  a  pious 
posterity. 

Chisda,  Rabbi,  criticised  by  a  pupil, 

144-5- 
Chiya,  Rabbi,  the  holiness  of,  212. 
Choni  Hammaagel,  miracle-worker, 

lacks  influence  on  Jewish  thought, 

7- 
Chosen    ones,    a    term    applied    to 

Israel  by  God,  47. 
Christianity,  the  essential  principle 

of,  in  the  Book  of  Leviticus,  120. 
Chronicles  (I),  the  Book  of,  cited, 

in  connection  with  the  uniqueness 

of  Israel,  48 ;  with  the  Evil  Yezer, 


243  (bis);    with  the  heart  as  the 
seat  of  the  Yezers,  257. 

Chronicles  (II),  the  Book  of,  cited, 
in  connection  with  the  repentance 
of  Manasseh,  318,  319. 

Civil  law,  in  the  Mishnah,  2. 

Commandment,  the  performance 
of  one,  and  the  salvation  of  the 
world,  189-90. 

Commandments,  the,  kept  by  God, 
203. 
See  Mizwoth,  the. 

Communion,  with  the  Holy  Spirit, 
brought  about  by  Chasiduth,  217; 
with  God,  follows  the  banishment 
of  the  Evil  Yeier,  292. 

Community,  the,  responsibility  of, 
and  the  doctrine  of  imputed  sin, 
1 91-5;  and  the  atoning  power  of 
sacrifices,  300-1 ;  and  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  301 ;  separation  from, 
prevents  repentance,  330. 
See  also  Solidarity. 

Compilation,  a,  inadequate  as  a 
theologic  source,  3-5. 

Conceit,  causes  death,  246. 
See  also  Pride. 

Conduct,  determines  man's  near- 
ness to  God,  33. 

Confession  of  sins,  the,  accom- 
panies certain  sacrifices,  296;  a 
part  of  repentance,  335-8. 

Contamination,  description   of  sin, 

233-4- 
Corporeal   terms  applied    to    God, 

mitigated,  35-6;   exaggerated,  40. 
See  also  Allegorising  method, 

the. 
Corrective  of  the  Law,  Chasiduth, 

212-14;     the    law    of    goodness, 

214-16. 
Corruption,  sin  a  symptom  of,  235. 
Court  of  justice,  the,  duties  of,  and 

the  doctrine  of  imputed  sin,  191, 

192,  193-5- 
Covenant,  the,   of  God  with  Israel 
and  the  Porek  ol,  220  and  n. 


INDEX 


357 


Covenant  with  the  Fathers,  the,  un- 
limited, 179. 

See  also  Zachuth,    the,  of    the 
Fathers. 

Creation,  Master  of  all,  epithet  for 
God,  22. 

Creation  of  man,  the,  subject  of 
controversy,  8. 

Creation  of  the  world,  the,  a  glori- 
fication of  God,  80-1 ;  man  the 
centre  of,  82;  and  wisdom,  127- 
8;  according  to  the  Cabalists, 
128;  repentance  indispensable 
to,  128,  314. 

Creator,  epithet  for  God,  26. 

Creed,  The  Thirteen  Articles  of 
the,  by  Maimonides,  contain  no 
mention  of  Israel's  election,  57. 

Criminal  procedure,  in  the  Mish- 
nah,  2. 

Criticism  of  the  wise,  prevents  re- 
pentance, 331. 

Cursing  the  many,  prevents  repent- 
ance, 330. 

Daniel,  Rome  in  the  vision  of,    100. 

Daniel,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  God  as  a  teacher  of 
the  Torah,  43 ;  with  the  extent  of 
the  Torah,  122. 

David,  the  consequences  of  the  mar- 
riage of,  with  a  captive,  212-13; 
name  given  to  the  Evil  Yezer  by, 
243 ;  banishes  the  Evil  Yezer,  271 ; 
slays  the  Evil  Yezer,  275;  made 
to  sin  as  an  example  of  repentance, 
317-18;  and  Jeroboam,  319;  con- 
fident of  God's  forgiveness,  326; 
confesses  his  sin,  336. 

Dead,  the,  and  the  doctrine  of  im- 
puted sin,  196;  and  the  Zachuth 
of  posterity,  198;  prayers  for,  198. 

Death,  caused  by  the  Evil  Yezer, 
244-7;  caused  by  sin,  245,  247; 
of  children,  254;  the  contempla- 
tion of,  conquers  the  Evil  Yezer, 
276;    the  punishment  of  the  sin- 


ner,   293,    294,    304;     an    atone- 
ment, 304,  307-8,  310. 

Death,  the  Angel  of.  See  Angel  of 
Death,  the. 

Death-bed  repentance,  340-1. 

Deborah,  the  generation  of,  has  a 
single  heart,  257. 

Decalogue,  the,  the  tablets  of,  sug- 
gest an  explanation  concerning 
the  Evil  Yezer,  274-5. 

See  also  Law,  the;   Torah,  the. 

Defilement,    term    applied    to    the 
cardinal  sins,  205,  206. 
See  also  Impurity. 

Defilement  of  the  land,  caused  by 
idolatry,  223;  caused  by  pride, 
223;   caused  by  murder,  226. 

Deification  of  man,  objected  to  by 
the  Rabbis,  38-9. 

Deluge,  the,  and  the  doctrine  of 
imputed  sin,  195;  generation  of, 
rebels,  219,  222;  causes  pain  to 
God,  219-20;  robbery  the  capi- 
tal sin  of,  227;  and  the  Tetra- 
grammaton,  239;  give  the  Evil 
Yezer  sway,  271;  warned  to  re- 
pent, 315. 

Depravity  in  children,  left  unpro- 
tested,  prevents  repentance,  331. 

Desert,  the,  reason  for  giving  the 
Torah  in,  131. 

Deuteronomy,  the  Book  of,  cited, 
in  connection  with  Moses'  ac- 
knowledgement of  God,  26;  with 
the  might  of  God,  38;  with  the 
justice  of  God,  38;  with  the  faith- 
fulness of  God,  38 ;  with  the  unity 
of  God,  48;  with  Israel's  exalted 
place,  48;  with  the  election  of 
Israel,  58  {bis),  63-4;  with  the 
kingdom  of  God,  67  (bis);  with 
love  of  God,  67,  68,  69,  79  {his); 
with  man's  righteousness  and  the 
kingdom  of  God,  90  {bis),  91 ;  with 
the  kingship  benediction,  96;  with 
the  superiority  of  the  Torah,  118; 
an   Imitatio   Dei,    119;     cited   in 


358 


INDEX 


connection  with  the  command- 
ment of  forgetf Illness,  149;  with 
the  joy  of  the  Law,  150;  with 
performing  the  Law  with  a  view 
to  reward,  162;  with  Zachuth, 
179;  with  the  Zachuth  of  a  pious 
ancestry,  182,  183;  against  im- 
puted sin,  185,  186;  cited  in 
connection  with  the  duties  of  a 
court  of  justice,  193;  with  im- 
puted sin  through  posterity,  196; 
with  walking  in  the  ways  of  God, 
201 ;  with  the  imitation  of  God, 
203;  with  cleaving  to  God,  204 
(bis);  with  jealousy,  204;  with 
marriage  with  a  captive,  213;  with 
a  rebellious  son,  213;  with  the 
law  of  goodness,  214;  with  pride, 
223,  224;  with  the  Shechinah, 
224  (bis);  with  heresy,  225;  with 
the  Evil  Yezer,  242,  243;  with 
the  good  heart,  259;  with  reme- 
dies against  the  Evil  Yezer,  277; 
with  God's  regret  at  having  cre- 
ated the  Evil  Yezer,  284  (bis); 
with  free  will  and  the  Evil  Yezer, 
286  (bis),  288;  with  the  com- 
munal sacrifices,  301 ;  with  the 
justice  of  God,  305,  306;  with 
the  repentance  of  Manasseh,  318; 
with  God's  attribute  of  mercy  in 
relation  to  repentance,  322. 

Devious  ways,  and  the  imitation  of 
God,  204. 

Devotion,  a  necessary  element  in 
prayer,  156-9. 

De  Wette,  definition  of  mysticism 
by,  77- 

Dibbur,  as  used  by  the  Rabbis,  43  n. 

Dietary  laws.     See  Forbidden  food. 

Dining-table,  the,  the  atoning  power 
of,  312. 

Dishonesty,  a  widespread  sin,  250, 
260. 

Disobedience.    See  Sin. 

Disrespect,  removes  the  Divine 
Presence,  232. 


Divine  Presence,  the.  See  Shechi- 
nah, the. 

Divorce  laws,  in  the  Mishnah,  2. 

"Duties  of  the  Heart,"  by  Bachye 
Ibn  Bakudah,  quoted,  68-9,  72-3. 

Ecce  Homo,  quoted,  on  the  ideal 
of  Jesus,  112. 

Ecclesiastes,  the  Book  of,  cited  in 
connection  with  corrupt  govern- 
ment, 107;  with  the  weakening 
influence  of  sin,  238;  with  unin- 
tentional sins,  240 ;  with  the  heart 
as  the  seat  of  the  Yezers,  256;  with 
the  two  Yezers,  265;  with  the 
good  uses  of  the  Evil  Yezer,  267; 
with  man's  responsibility  for  the 
Evil  Yezer,  268. 

Edom,  the  prototype  of  Rome,  99, 
108. 

Egypt,  the  people  of,  cause  pain  to 
God,  219-20. 

Eighteen  Benedictions,  the,  prayer 
for  grace  to  conquer  the  Evil  Yezer 
in,  280. 

Eleazar  ben  Jose  of  Galilee,  on  alle- 
goric interpretation  of  Scriptures, 
41  n. 

Election  of  Israel,  the,  treated  by 
the  Agadah,  3;  indicates  the 
close  relation  to  God,  57;  an  un- 
formulated dogma,  57;  in  the 
liturgy,  57;  in  the  Scriptures,  58; 
the  Rabbis  on,  58-64;  reasons 
for,  58-62;  predestined,  59;  not 
exclusive,  62-4. 

Eli,  the  sons  of,  deny  the  kingdom 
of  God,  87. 

Eliezer,  Rabbi,  Chapters  of,  on 
God  before  the  creation  of  the 
world,  80;  on  repentance,  128; 
on  free  will  and  the  Evil  Yezer, 
288-9. 

Eliezer  ben  Azariah,  and  the  Zachuth 
of  his  ancestors,  176. 

Eliezer  of  Worms,  quoted,  on  love 
of  God,  74-5;  on  Chasiduth,  210. 


INDEX 


359 


Elijah,  held  up  as  a  model  to  Hiram, 
39;  rebuked  for  excessive  zeal, 
52-3;  and  the  inheritors  of  the 
future  world,  166;  rebuked  for 
excessive  severity,  204-5;  ^^^ 
the  law  of  saints,  216;  banishes 
the  Evil  Yezer,  271 ;  reproaches 
God  for  the  Evil  Yezer,  283. 

Elisha,  why  made  to  supersede 
Elijah,  53,  205;  urges  Gehazi  to 
repent,  333. 

Elohim,  God  as  judge,  35. 

El  Shadai,  the  God  of  pardon,  35-6. 

Enemy,  name  for  the  Evil   Yezer, 

243- 

Enosh,  generation  of,  rebels,  219; 
cause  pain  to  God,  219-20, 

Envy,  causes  death,  245,  246;  ser- 
viceable for  a  good  purpose,  267. 

Epithets  for  God,  21-2,  26-8,  34, 
35-6;  as  used  by  the  Rabbis,  39; 
in  the  liturgy,  44. 

Esau,  identified  with  Amalek  and 
Rome,  99-100,  108;  supreme  in 
this  world,  100;  the  Torah  of- 
fered to,  132. 

Eve,  God  at  the  wedding  of,  37,  203. 

Evil,  name  for  the  Evil  Yezer,  243. 

Evil,  the  punishment  of  the  sinner, 
293,  294- 

Evil  eye,  the,  causes  death,  245. 

Evil  inclination,  the.  See  Evil 
Yezer,  the. 

Evil  thoughts,  indulgence  in,  pre- 
vents repentance,  330. 

EvU  Yezer,  the,  and  the  love  of  God, 
67-8;  suppressed  by  Israel  to 
acknowledge  the  kingdom  of  God, 
97-8;  Scriptural  passages  on, 
242-3;  names  for,  243-4;  ac- 
tivities of,  244-7,  248;  corre- 
sponds to  lust,  246;  punishment 
meted  out  by,  246-7 ;  and  vanity, 
248-9,  276;  instantaneous  re- 
sistance to,  recommended,  249; 
connected  closely  with  idolatry 
and   adultery,    250;    and   scepti- 


cism, 251-2;  disparages  charity, 
252;  when  it  takes  possession  of 
man,  252-5 ;  the  heart  the  seat  of, 
255-61 ;  not  equivalent  with  the 
heart,  258-9;  has  no  dominion 
over  the  heart  filled  with  Torah 
259;  prominent  in  Jewish  litera- 
ture, 262  ;  the  leaven  in  the  dough, 
262-3;  ^  creature  of  God,  264-6; 
God  acknowledges  the  creation  of, 
266,  280-3;  uses  of,  266-7;  called 
a  good  quality,  267;  the  servant 
of  man,  267 ;  man  responsible  for, 
268-9;  created  for  man  to  over- 
come, 269;  can  be  overcome  by 
man,  269-70;  can  be  turned  to 
good  purposes,  271;  how  to  ban- 
ish, 271-2;  the  Good  Yezer  to  be 
stirred  up  against,  272-3;  two 
weapons  against,  273;  conquered 
by  the  study  of  the  Torah,  273-5 ; 
conquest  of,  an  honouring  of  God, 
275;  conquered  by  the  contem- 
plation of  death,  276;  various 
remedies  against,  277-8;  grace 
needed  to  conquer,  278-84,  289- 
90;  God  regrets  the  creation  of, 
284;  and  free  will,  284-9;  to 
cease  with  the  advent  of  the  Mes- 
siah, 290-2;  the  appearance  of, 
to  the  righteous  and  the  wicked, 
290;  Israel's  reward  for  banish- 
ing, 292;  repentance  for,  304,  313, 
314;  God  prays  for  the  destruc- 
tion of,  316;  killed  by  a  con- 
fession of  sin,  338. 

Exaltation,  and  the  imitation  of 
God,  204. 

Exodus,  the,  due  to  the  Zachuth  of 
the  Fathers,  174,  180,  185  n.;  de- 
nied by  the  perverter  of  justice. 
230;  fulfilment  of  the  command- 
ment on  usury,  a  condition  of, 
230-1. 

Exodus,  the  Book  of,  cited  in  con- 
nection with  the  might  of  God, 
38;    with  the  mercy  of  God,  38; 


360 


INDEX 


with  the  pride  of  a  mortal,  38; 
with  Jethro's  acknowledgement 
of  God,  25;  with  the  name  of 
God,  35,  36;  with  God's  presence 
at  Mount  Sinai,  36;  with  God's 
speech  with  man,  41 ;  with  God 
as  a  man  of  war,  43;  with  the 
affliction  of  Israel,  44;  with  God's 
dwelling  on  earth,  48 ;  with  God's 
paternal  interest  in  Israel,  50,  51 ; 
with  Moses  as  a  sacrifice  for 
Israel,  53;  with  the  election  of 
Israel,  58,  63;  with  the  glorifica- 
tion of  God  through  creation,  80; 
with  the  kingdom  of  God  as  es- 
tablished by  Israel,  85-6 ;  with  the 
sanction  of  the  Law,  116;  the  le- 
gal part  of  the  Torah  begins  in, 
120;  the  book  of  the  covenant 
mentioned  in,  121;  cited  in  con- 
nection with  Israel's  holiness, 
168;  with  the  Zachuth  of  the 
Fathers,  174;  with  the  Zachuth 
of  a  pious  ancestry,  181 ;  with  im- 
puted sin,  185,  187;  with  exalta- 
tion, 204;  with  sexual  immo- 
rality, 206;  with  murder,  213; 
with  adultery,  214;  with  mercy, 
215;  with  humility,  223;  with 
the  sight  of  the  glory  of  God, 
236  {his);  with  the  weakening 
influence  of  sin,  239  (Jbis);  with 
the  Tetragrammaton,  239;  with 
the  tablets  of  stone  for  the  Deca- 
logue, 275;  with  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  Evil  Yezer  in  the 
Messianic  time,  291  {bis)\  with  the 
atoning  power  of  the  righteous, 
310;  with  Pharaoh's  hardened 
heart,  332. 

Extermination,  penalty  for  adul- 
tery, 224. 

"External"  books.  See  Apoca- 
lyptic;   Apocryphal. 

Eye,  term  for  the  relation  between 
God  and  Israel,  47. 

Eye,  the  evil,  causes  death,  245. 


Eye  of  the  world,  epithet  for  God,  26. 

Eyes,  the,  cause  sin,  208,  214; 
agents  of  sin,  258. 

Ezekiel,  the  visions  of,  and  God's 
heavenly  abode,  28-9. 

Ezekiel,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  the  pride  of  Hiram, 
38-9;  with  Israel's  relation  to 
God,  44;  with  the  kingdom  of 
God,  71,  88;  with  imputed  sin, 
187,  196;  with  robbery,  228;  with 
the  Evil  Yezer,  243-4;  with  the 
sinning  soul,  261 ;  with  the  Evil 
Yezer  regarded  as  stone,  275 ;  with 
the  grace  needed  to  conquer  the 
Evil  Yezer,  281 ;  with  the  pun- 
ishment of  sinners,  293 ;  with  re- 
pentance human  and  Divine,  328. 

Faith,  the  Rabbis  quoted  on,  14; 
the  reason  for  Israel's  election, 
59-60. 

Faithfulness,  the,  of  God,  38. 

Family,  the,  and  the  doctrine  of  im- 
puted sin,  192. 

Family  of  God,  Israel,  200. 

Fasting,  a  sacrificial  atonement, 
308;  cannot  replace  repentance, 
335 ;    with  repentance,  339-40. 

Fasts,  public,  the  Zachuth  of  pious 
ancestors  invoked  at,  172. 

Father,  term  for  the  relation  be- 
tween God  and  Israel,  46,  49, 
50-6;   as  used  in  the  liturgy,  155. 

Father  of  the  world,  epithet  for  God, 
26. 

Fatherhood  of  God,  the,  to  be  ac- 
knowledged by  Israel,  50-1 ; 
Luther  on,  51  n.;  an  uncondi- 
tional relation,  51-6;  in  the 
liturgy,  54-6;  changed  by  apos- 
tasy, 55  n.        ^ 

See  also  Reciprocal  relation. 

Fathers,    the,    in   the   sense   of   the 
three    patriarchs,     171;      imper- 
fections and  distinctions  of,  173-4- 
See  also  Patriarchs,  the. 


INDEX 


361 


"Fathers,    the,    the    Chapters   of," 

character  of  the  contents,  2. 
Fathers,    the,    the    merits    of.     See 

Zachuth. 
Fear,   an  expression  for  love  with 

the  Rabbis,  72;    a  constituent  of 

the  Torah,  146. 
Fear  of  God,  the,  not  in  the  power 

of  God,  285. 
Fiend,  name  for  the  Evil  Yezer,  243. 
First-born  son,  term  for  the  relation 

of  Israel  to  God,  46. 
Flock,  term  for  the  relation  of  Israel 

to  God,  49. 
Folly,  a  description  of  sin,  236-7. 
Foolish  old  king,  name  for  the  Evil 

Yezer,  244,  254. 
Forbidden   food,    causes    impiirity, 

206-7. 
Forgetfulness,     the    commandment 

on,  illustrated,  149. 
Forgiveness,      for     sins,      attained 

through   repentance,  293-4,  335; 

resides    with  God    alone,  294-5; 

through     suffering,      309;       five 

classes    not    subject    to,    328-30; 

granted  three  times  for  the  same 

sin,  332. 

See  also  Atonement;  Reconcil- 
iation. 
Freedom,  attained  through  the  yoke 

of  the  kingdom  of  God,  70. 
Free  will,  and  the  Evil  Yezer,  284-9. 
Future  world,  the.     See  World,  the 

future. 

Gabriel,  angel,  not  a  mediator,  45, 
67;  may  not  approach  Moses, 
238.  _ 

Galgalim,  the,  surrounding  God,  32. 

Gamaliel  the  Second,  Rabban,  al- 
luded to,  176. 

Gehazi,  ruled  by  the  Evil  Yezer,  271 ; 
urged  to  repent,  333. 

Gehenna,  children  save  parents 
from,  197;  repentance  in,  341  n. 

Gemara,  the.     See  Talmud,  the. 


Genesis,  the  Book  of,  cited  in  con- 
nection with  the  dignity  of  men, 
1 20 ;  value  of,  121;  cited  in  con- 
nection with  the  protective  power 
of  the  Zachuth,  190 ;  with  the  imi- 
tation of  God,  202;  with  the 
Porek  ol,  221  (bis);  with  blood- 
shed, 226,  251;  with  the  Tetra- 
grammaton,  240;  with  the  Evil 
Yezer,  242,  243,  264,  265  (bis), 
266;  with  overcoming  the  Evil 
Yezer,  270,  283;  with  the  Evil 
Yezer  as  stone,  274. 
Gentiles,  the,  transitory  character 
of  opinions  on,  9-10;  magnify 
God,  58;  God's  relation  to,  62-4; 
of  the  kingdom  of  God,  106;  re- 
fuse the  Law,  131-2;  refuse  to 
share  in  the  Law  with  Israel,  133 ; 
rebellious  under  suffering,  310. 

See  also  Kingdom  of   God,  the 
universal. 
Geonic  Responsa,  quoted,  on  prayers 

for  the  dead,  198. 
Geonim,  the,  and  the  visible  uni- 
versal kingdom  of  God,  95-6; 
and  the  national  kingdom  of  God, 
97- 
Gluttony,  incompatible  with  holi- 
ness, 21  i-i  2 ;  auxiliary  to  the  Evil 
Yezer,  277. 
God,  man's  relation  to,  treated  by 
the  Agadah,  3;  epithets  for,  21-2, 
26-8,  34,  35-6;  man's  nearness 
to,  determined  by  his  conduct,  33; 
an  imitatio  hominis,  37-B;  at- 
tendant at  the  wedding  of  Adam 
and  Eve,  37,  203;  as  used  by 
the  Hellenists,  43  n. ;  the  unity  of, 
emphasised,  43-4;  worship  due 
to  him  alone,  44-5;  relation  of, 
to  the  world,  21-45;  relation  of, 
to  Israel,  46-56;  terms  for  the 
relation  of,  to  Israel,  46-7;  ap- 
plies his  own  attributes  to  Israel, 
47;  and  the  angels,  49;  before 
the  creation  of  the  world,  80-1 ; 


362 


INDEX 


removed  from  the  world  by  sin, 
83;  teaches  Israel  how  to  pray, 
157;  to  be  imitated  by  men,  201- 
5;  the  denial  of,  the  essence  of 
sin,  233;  name  given  to  the  Evil 
Yezer  by,  243;  responsible  for 
the  existence  of  the  Evil  Yezer, 
266,  280-3;  regrets  the  creation 
of  the  Evil  Yezer,  284. 

See  also  under  Forgiveness; 
Kingdom  of  God;  Transcenden- 
talism. 

Gods,  a  term  applied  to  Israel  by 
God,  47,  49. 

Golden  calf,  the,  indicative  of  Is- 
rael's rebelliousness,  86;  the  sin 
of,  counteracted  by  the  Zachuth 
of  the  Fathers,  174  (bis),  180; 
and  the  doctrine  of  imputed  sin, 
189;  the  sin  of,  permitted,  to 
teach  repentance,  317. 

Good  inclination,  the.  See  Good 
Yezer,  the. 

Good  Yezer,  the,  in  the  Book  of 
Chronicles  (I),  243;  term  of  a 
late  date,  243;  the  heart  the  seat 
of,  255,  256,  257,  259;  represented 
by  men,  262 ;  a  creature  of  God, 
264-5;  preferred  by  the  right- 
eous, 271 ;  to  be  stirred  up  against 
the  Evil  Yezer,  272-3;  prayers 
for,  279-80;  in  the  Messianic 
time,  291. 

Goodness,  the  law  of,  akin  to  holi- 
ness, 214;  defined  by  Nach- 
manides,  214-5;  ^^^  insisting 
upon  strict  justice,  215. 

Goodness  of  God,  manifested  in 
the  creation,  80. 

Goodness  of  the  world,  epithet  for 
God,  26. 

Gomorrah,  and  the  doctrine  of 
Zachuth,  190;  the  people  of, 
rebels,  219,  222;  the  people  of, 
cause  pain  to  God,  219-20. 

Government,  a  corrupt,  incompatible 
with  the  kingdom  of  God,  106-9. 


Grace,  Rabbi  Akiba  on  justifica- 
tion by,  15-16;  the  reason  for 
Israel's  election,  61-2;  the  reve- 
lation an  act  of,  133-5 ;  needed  in 
connection  with  the  Torah  to 
conquer  the  Evil  Yezer,  278; 
prayers  for,  278-9;  prayers  for, 
in  the  liturgy,  279-80;  the  need 
for,  implies  God's  responsibility 
for  the  existence  of  the  Evil 
Yezer,  280-2;  needed  to  subdue 
the  Evil  Yezer,  in  the  world 
to  come,  282-3;  granted  to 
Abimelech,  283-4;  man  must 
show  himself  worthy  of,  289-90; 
Akiba  on,  306;  reserved  for  this 
world,  307;  repentance  an  act 
of,  324. 

Graciousness  of  God,  the,  to  be  imi- 
tated by  man,  201-2. 

Guilt  offering,  the,  ensures  forgive- 
ness, 293;  accompanied  by  re- 
pentance, 296. 

Habakkuk,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  the  Mizwoth,  140; 
with  bearing  witness,  247. 

Hagiographa,  the,  sometimes  ex- 
cluded by  the  term  Torah,  118; 
included  in  the  term  Torah,  121- 
6;  frequently  quoted  by  the 
Rabbis,  122;  included  in  the 
Scriptures,  123;  benediction  for, 
123;  how  cited  in  Rabbinic  liter- 
ature, 124-5. 

See  also  Wisdom. 

Halachah,  the,  not  subject  to  mirac- 
ulous proof,  7. 

Halachic  discussions,  epithet  for 
God  in,  34. 

Hallam,  quoted,  39. 

Hallevi,  Judah.  See  Judah  Hal- 
levi. 

Hamnuna  Zuta,  on  the  contempla- 
tion of  death,  276. 

Hananiah,  justified  in  rebelling 
against  Nebuchadnezzar,  107. 


INDEX 


Z^Z 


Harnack,  on  Pauline  Epistles,  i8. 
Hatred,  a  greater  sin  than  the  car- 
dinal   sins,    227;     causes    death, 

245- 

Hausrath,  disparages  the  Jewish 
Sabbath,  153. 

Heart,  the,  causes  sin,  208 ;  in  Jew- 
ish literature,  255  n.;  as  the  seat 
of  the  Yezers,  255-61;  the  agent 
of  sin,  258;  not  equivalent  to  the 
Evil  Yezer,  258-9;  good,  259; 
accused  of  inconsistency,  259; 
equivalent  to  the  soul,  260-1 ;  in 
the  righteous  and  the  wicked, 
270. 
See  also  Soul,  the. 

Heaven,  as  the  abode  of  God,  28-9, 
30-1,  32;  notion  as  such  leaves 
Rabbinic  theology   uninfluenced, 

30- 

Heaven,  epithet  for  God,  21,  28; 
does  not  imply  remoteness,  46. 

Hegelianism,  and  the  Rabbis,  19. 

Height  of  the  world,  epithet  for  God, 
28. 

Hell,  endowed  with  pre-mundane 
existence,  128. 

Hellenism,  and  the  Rabbis,  39-40, 
42-3;    and  its  use  of  God,  43  n. 

Heresy,  akin  to  adultery,  225-6. 

Herod,  king,  alluded  to,  93. 

Hezekiah,  king,  alluded  to,  177. 

Hidden-One,  name  for  the  Evil 
Yezer,  244. 

High  One,  epithet  for  God,  28. 

High  priest,  the,  the  vestments  of, 
have  atoning  power,  300. 

Higher  criticism,  the,  on  the  litera- 
ture produced  under  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  Law,  116. 

Hillel,  Rabbi,  not  a  miracle-worker, 
7;  as  a  modern  altruist,  18-19; 
on  the  resurrection,  102  n.;  on 
the  oneness  of  the  material  and 
the  spiritual  life,  145;  on  material 
uses  of  the  Torah,  154,  159;  on 
individual     righteousness,      182; 


worthy   of  the   Divine   Presence, 

238. 
Hillel,  the  school  of,  on  the  creation 

of  man,  8;    on  the  atoning  power 

of  the  burnt  offering,  299. 
Hiram,  of  Tyre,  reproved  for  pride, 

38-9- 

Holiness,  the  Law  a  source  of,  168; 
a  motive  for  the  performance  of 
the  Law,  168-9;  the  culmina- 
tion of  the  Law,  199;  grows  out 
of  the  kingdom  of  God,  199;  an 
Imitatio  Dei,  199-200,  201-5; 
divisions  of,  201 ;  and  separate- 
ness,  205 ;  destroyed  by  impurity, 
205-9;  abstention  from  things 
superfluous,  211-12;  abstention 
from  things  permitted,  212-13; 
and  the  law  of  goodness,  214;  and 
communion  with  God,  218. 

See  also  Kedushah;  Chasiduth. 

Holiness,  a  name  for  God  in  Rab- 
binic literature,  199. 

Holy,  applied  to  the  patriarchs 
after  their  death,  173;  attribute 
applied  to  Israel  by  God,  47. 

Holy  Land,  the,  talk  of  the  people 
in,  called  Torah,  126. 

Holy  One,  the,  epithet  for  God,  21; 
most  frequent  name  for  God  in 
Rabbinic  literature,  199. 

Holy  Spirit,  the,  dictates  the  Torah, 
1 20-1;  Chasiduth  leads  to  com- 
munion with,  217-18. 

Hope,  term  for  the  relation  between 
God  and  Israel,  46. 

Hosea,  rebuked  for  excessive  zeal, 

53- 
Hosea,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  God  as  a  man  of 
war,  36;  with  God's  love  for 
Israel,  61 ;  with  the  manner  of 
performing  the  Law,  161;  with 
Zachuth,  178;  with  man's  wor- 
thiness of  grace,  289;  with  re- 
pentance for  many  sins,  325; 
with  confession  of  sins,  338. 


3^4 


INDEX 


Hoshayah,  Rabbi,  on  wisdom,  127. 

Humanising  of  God,  37-8. 

Humanity,  the  essential  principle 
of,  in  the  Book  of  Leviticus,  120. 

Humbleness,  the  reason  for  Israel's 
election,  60. 

Hushai,  the  Archite,  reproves  David, 
212-13. 

Hypocrisy,  detrimental  to  belief  in 
the  unity  of  God,  68-9. 

Hypocrites,  excluded  from  the  Di- 
vine Presence,  232. 

Idolater,  the,  animosity  to,  dates 
from  the  revelation,  131 ;  a  Porek 
ol,  220;  names  for,  222-3;  com- 
pared to  the  unmerciful,  231-2. 

Idolatry,  laws  on,  not  a  practical 
consideration,  141 ;  a  cardinal 
sin,  205;  transgression  of  the 
dietary  laws  leads  to,  207;  con- 
sequences of,  223;  pride,  a  form 
of,  223-4;  anger,  a  form  of,  224; 
a  contamination,  233;  described 
as  folly,  237;  and  the  Evil  Yezer, 
244,  250;  the  cause  of  sin,  291-2. 
See  also  Polytheism. 

Idols,  defined,  67. 

Imitatio  Dei,  holiness  is  an,  199- 
200;  particularised  by  Abba 
Saul,  201-2. 

Immorality,  dirties  the  Torah,  234. 
See  also  Xdnlievy;    Sexual    im- 
morality. 

Immortality,  treated  by  the  Aga- 
dah,  3. 

Impurity,  in  the  sense  of  sexual 
immorality,  205-6;  of  body,  206- 
7;  caused  by  a  disgusting  act, 
267;  caused  by  a  transgression 
of  a  Biblical  law,  208-9;  of 
thought,  210-11,  232. 

See  also  Levitical  impurity. 

Imputed  righteousness.  See  Za- 
chuth. 

Imputed  sin,  the  doctrine  of,  a 
counterpart     of     Zachuth,     170; 


Biblical  authority  for,  and  against, 
185-7;  and  the  sin  of  Adam,  188; 
and  the  sin  of  the  golden  calf,  189; 
through  contemporaries,  191-5; 
and  secret  sins,  194;  and  the 
revelation,  195;  through  pos- 
terity, 195-7. 

Incest,  laws  on,  not  a  practical 
consideration,  141. 

Inclination,  the  evil.  See  Evil 
Yezer,  the. 

Inclination,  the  good.  See  Good 
Yezer,  the. 

Incontinence.  See  Sexual  immoral- 
ity. 

Individualism  in  religion,  76-9. 

Informer,  the  ofl&ce  of,  performed 
by  the  Evil  Yezer,  252. 

Inheritance,  regulated  by  the  Mish- 
nah,  2, 

Initiative,  in  repentance,  324,  327. 

Isaac,  God  condoles  with,  37. 

See   also   Fathers,  the;    Patri- 
archs, the. 

Isaac,  Rabbi,  on  the  Prophets,  124. 

Isaiah,  the  condition  of  his  propheti- 
cal call,  52;  the  mouthpiece  of 
the  Mosaic  revelation,  124. 

Isaiah,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  separation  from  God, 
33;  with  the  intimate  relation  of 
God  to  Israel,  47,  50;  with  the 
rebelliousness  of  Israel,  52;  with 
Israel's  filial  relation  to  God, 
54  (bis) ;  with  Abraham,  59 ;  with 
God's  relation  to  the  Gentiles, 
62;  with  the  glorification  of 
God  through  creation,  80;  with 
universalism,  106  (bis),  131; 
prophetical  portion  for  the  Day 
of  Atonement  from,  119;  cited,  in 
connection  with  the  Mizwoth, 
140  (bis);  with  humility,  223; 
with  robbery,  228;  with  nearness 
to  God,  233  (bis);  with  the  attri- 
bute of  mercy,  240;  with  the 
Evil  Yezer,  243;    with  the  heart, 


INDEX 


36s 


258;  with  remedies  against  the 
Evil  Yezer,  277;  with  grace  to 
conquer  the  Evil  Yezer,  281 ; 
with  free  will  and  the  Evil  Yezer, 
287,  288;  with  man's  worthiness 
of  grace,  290  (bis);  with  the 
atoning  power  of  the  righteous, 
310;  with  things  that  prevent 
repentance,  331. 

Ishmael,  Rabbi,  on  the  pre-mun- 
dane  existence  of  repentance,  314. 

Israel,  God  teaches  Torah  to,  37; 
attributes  of  God  applied  to,  47; 
higher  than  the  angels,  49 ;  prayer 
by,  acceptable,  49,  50-1 ;  high 
responsibility  of,  51-2;  prophets 
and  patriarchs,  atone  for,  53; 
attributes  of,  qualifying  it  for 
election,  59-60;  elected  by  God 
as  the  first-born,  62;  establishes 
the  kingdom  of  God,  85-6,  88-9 ; 
rebellious  against  the  kingdom 
of  God,  86-8;  connected  in  the 
liturgy  with  the  kingdom  of  God, 
97;  suppresses  the  evil  inclina- 
tion to  acknowledge  the  kingdom 
of  God,  97-8;  the  redemption  of, 
and  the  kingdom  of  God,  98-103; 
the  depository  of  the  kingdom  of 
God,  105;  what  constitutes  it  a 
nation,  105-6;  mission  of,  to 
destroy  a  corrupt  government, 
108-9;  the  kingdom  of  God 
dependent  on,  11 4-1 5;  endowed 
with  pre-mundane  existence,  128; 
the  Torah  pleads  for,  and  against, 
129;  wedded  to  the  Torah,  130; 
why  made  the  bearer  of  the  Torah, 
1 31-2;  to  share  the  Torah  with 
the  Gentiles,  133;  its  view  of  the 
Torah,  137;  commended  for 
joy  in  the  Law,  149-50;  taught 
by  God  how  to  pray,  157;  holy 
through  the  commandments,  1 68- 
9;  lives  through  the  Zachuth  of 
the  Fathers,  175;  the  solidarity 
of,  1 91-5;    the  holiness  of,  199- 


200;  dietary  laws  the  special 
privilege  of,  207;  delivered  to  the 
sword  by  idolatry,  223;  the 
sanctuary  of,  destroyed  by  blood- 
shed, 226;  redeemed  from  Egypt 
to  fulfil  the  commandment  of 
justice,  230;  redeemed  from 
Egypt  on  condition  that  it  obeys 
the  commandment  on  usury,  230- 
I ;  purified  by  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, 234;  the  sin  of,  removes  the 
Divine  Presence,  236,  238;  weak- 
ened by  sin,  239;  apostasy  of,  due 
to  the  Evil  Yezer,  242;  needs 
grace  to  extenuate  its  guilt,  282; 
and  the  disappearance  of  the  Evil 
Yezer,  291 ;  rewarded  for  sub- 
duing the  Evil  Yezer,  292;  the 
solidarity  of,  and  the  atoning 
power  of  sacrifices,  300-1 ;  re- 
pentance of,  304;  to  be  punished 
in  the  future  world,  307;  humble 
under  suffering,  310;  the  right- 
eous and  the  children  atone  for, 
310-11;  given  opportunity  for 
repentance,  316;  made  to  sin,  as 
an  example  of  repentance,  317; 
encouraged  to  repent  for  great 
sins,  326;  met  halfway  by  God, 
327;    must  confess  sins,  336. 

See  also  Election  of  Israel,  the; 
Kingdom  of  God,  the. 

Israel,  the  kingdom  of,  identified 
with  the  kingdom  of  God,  103; 
safeguards  the  conception  of  the 
kingdom  of  God,  104;  adds  the 
feature  of  material  happiness  to 
the  kingdom  of  God,  109-14. 

See  also  Israel ;  Election  of  Is- 
rael, the;  Kingdom  of  God,  the 
national;  Kingdom  of  God,  the 
visible  universal. 

Israel,  the  relation  of  God  to,  46- 
56;  terms  for,  46-7;  reciprocal, 
47-9,  50-1 ;  paternal  character 
of,  51-6;  changed  by  apostasy,  55 
n.;  indicated  by  election,  57. 


366 


INDEX 


See  also  Israel ;  Election  of  Is- 
rael, the. 

Jacob,  and  the  kingdom  of  God,  84 ; 
chooses  the  world  to  come  as  his 
portion,  100. 

See   also    Fathers,    the;   Patri- 
archs, the. 

Jealousy,  and  the  imitation  of  God, 
204;    Elijah  rebuked  for,  204-5. 

Jehoiachin,  the  repentance  of, 
acceptable,  326. 

Jehoiakim,  spites  God,  220. 

Jeremiah,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  reward  for  proper 
zeal,  53;  with  the  election  of  Is- 
rael, 58;  with  God's  relation  to 
the  Gentiles,  63  {his);  with  the 
kingdom  of  God,  99;  with  joy  of 
the  Law,  151;  with  prayer,  156; 
with  the  attachment  of  Israel  to 
God,  200;  with  the  Shechinah, 
225;  with  the  inconsistent  heart, 
259;  with  the  study  of  the  Torah 
as  a  weapon  against  the  Evil 
Yezer,  274;  with  the  grace  needed 
to  conquer  the  Evil  Yezer,  281, 
282;  with  the  justice  to  prevail 
in  the  future  world,  307 ;  with  re- 
pentance human  and  divine,  327. 

Jeroboam,  the  division  of  the  king- 
dom under,  rebellion  against 
God,  87;  urged  by  God  to  re- 
pent, 319-20. 

Jerusalem,  identified  with  the  king- 
dom of  God,  99;  cause  of  the 
destruction  of,  215;  a  resident 
of,  and  the  continual  burnt  offer- 
ing, 300. 

Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach,  on  wisdom, 
70. 

Jethro,  illustrates  the  attitude  of  a 
proselyte,  25. 

Job,  Satan's  good  intentions  con- 
cerning, 268;  argues  with  God 
regarding  the  Evil  Yezer,  273,  280. 

Job,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  connec- 


tion with  man's  rebelliousness, 
83;  with  the  spiritualisation  of 
Scriptures,  103;  with  adultery, 
214,  224-5;  with  heresy,  226; 
with  the  justice  of  God,  305. 

Jochanan,  Rabbi,  on  robbery  as  a 
capital  sin,  227-8. 

Jochanan  ben  Sakkai,  as  a  modern 
altruist,  18-19. 

Joel,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  connec- 
tion with  man's  direct  relation  to 
God,  44-5;  with  being  called  by 
the  name  of  God,  201 ;  with  the 
Evil  Yezer,  244;  with  fasting  and 
repentance,  339. 

Jonah,  the  Book  of,  quoted,  in 
connection  with  efi&cacious  re- 
pentance, 335. 

Jose,  Rabbi,  quoted  on  the  reward 
of  the  righteous,  14. 

Jose  ben  Chalafta,  Rabbi,  on  the 
qualities  of  God's  chosen  ones,  61. 

Joseph,  riiles  over  the  Evil  Yezer, 
271;  the  brothers  of,  defended 
by  the  Rabbis,  281. 

Joseph  Askari,  on  the  joy  of  the 
Law,  151. 

Joshua,  Israel  under,  accepts  the 
kingdom  of  God,  87. 

Joshua,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  Rahab's  acknowl- 
edgement of  God,  26. 

Joshua  ben  Levi,  Rabbi,  and  the 
law  of  saints,  216;  enumerates 
seven  names  for  the  Evil  Yezer, 
243-4;  on  repentance  in  Ge- 
henna, 341  n. 

Joy  of  the  Law,  an  essential  ele- 
ment in  the  understanding  of  the 
Law,  146,  148;  illustrated  in  the 
commandment  of  forgetfulness, 
149;  Israel  commended  for,  149- 
50;  Scriptural  and  Rabbinical 
quotations  on,  1 50-1 ;  mediaeval 
writers  on,  150-1;  a  modern  il- 
lustration of,  1 5 1-2;  illustrated 
on    the    Sabbath,    152-4;     illus- 


INDEX 


367 


trated  in  the  prayers,  154-9; 
a  motive  for  the  performance  of 
the  Law,  168-9. 

See  also  Law,   the ;  Torah,  the. 

Judah,  the  princes  of,  rebellious 
against  God,  87-8. 

Judah,  the  Saint  (Rabbi),  on  the 
time  when  the  Evil  Yezer  takes 
possession  of  man,  253-4;  prays 
for  grace  to  conquer  the  Evil 
Yezer,  279. 

Judah  (Judan),  Rabbi,  on  man's 
direct  relation  to  God,  44-5- 

Judah  ben  Ezekiel,  Rabbi,  defines 
Chasiduth,  209. 

Judah  ben  Ilai,  Rabbi,  limits  the 
paternal  relation  between  God 
and  Israel,  54;  on  the  imitation 
of  God,  203. 

Judah  Hallevi,  on  the  inclusiveness  of 
the  Torah,  146.    See  also  Kusari. 

Judaism,  and  individualism,  76-9; 
to  convert  the  world,  77;  aims  to 
establish  the  visible  kingdom  of 
God,  79;  teaches  a  universal 
kingdom  of  God,  93;  views  of, 
on  poverty,  no;  view  of,  on  suf- 
fering, in;  insists  upon  man's 
happiness  on  earth,  in. 
See  also  Rabbis,  the;   etc. 

Judges,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  the  administration 
of  justice,  229. 

Justice,  in  God,  38;  the  execution 
of,  conditions  the  Torah,  143; 
and  the  imitation  of  God,  204; 
bad  administration  of,  a  form  of 
bloodshed,  229-30;  superior  to 
sacrifices  as  a  means  of  atone- 
ment, 296;  God's  attribute  of, 
evoked  by  sin,  239-40;  the  Rab- 
bis on,  304-6;  prevails  in  the 
future  world,  307;  and  repent- 
ance, 322. 

Kaddish,  the,  and  the  kingdom  of 
God,  95. 


Kedushah,  holiness  within  the  limits 
of  the  Law,  201,  209;  original 
meaning  of,  205;  the  reward  of, 
217-18. 

See  also  Holiness ;   Chasiduth. 

Kiara,  Simon.     See  Simon  Kiara. 

King,  epithet  for  God,  21. 

Kingdom  of  God,  the,  defined  by 
the  Rabbis,  65;  conception  orig- 
inates in  the  Scriptures,  65;  di- 
visions of,  66;  universal  in  its 
aims,  93;  conception  narrowed 
and  enriched  by  national  aspect, 
103-4;  bad  government  incom- 
patible with,  106-9;  material 
features  of,  109-14;  dependent 
upon  Israel,  114-15;  confers 
authority  upon  the  Law,  116; 
holiness  grows  out  of,  199;  the 
yoke  of,  thrown  off  by  the  Porek 
ol,  220-1 ;  the  yoke  of,  thrown  off 
by  the  respecter  of  persons,  230. 

Kingdom  of  God,  the  invisible,  how 
to  receive  the  yoke  of,  66-7;  not 
a  burden,  70-2 ;  and  the  dangers 
of  quietism,  78. 

Kingdom  of  God,  the  national,  in 
the  liturgy,  97,  105;  connected 
with  the  redemption  of  Israel, 
98-101,  1 1 4-1 5;  opposed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Rome,  loi ;  the 
features  of,  104;  the  spiritual 
featiires  of,  104-6;  penitents  and 
proselytes  in,  106;  and  material 
happiness,  109-14. 

Kingdom  of  God,  the  universal,  in 
the  Shema,  64. 

See  also  Gentiles,  the. 

Kingdom  of  God,  the  visible,  the  aim 
of  Judaism,  78-9;  divisions  of,  80. 

Kingdom  of  God,  the  visible  uni- 
versal, dates  fram  the  creation  of 
man,  81,  82;  impaired  by  sin,  83; 
restored  by  Abraham,  83-4; 
taught  by  Jacob,  84;  established 
by  Israel,  84-6,  88-9;  Israel 
rebellious     against,     86-8;      re- 


368 


INDEX 


ceived  by  Israel  under  Joshua, 
87;  in  this  world,  89;  terms  for, 
89 ;  established  by  man  conscious 
of  God's  nearness,  89-90;  an 
ethical  concept,  90-1 ;  and  the 
Torah,  91-2;  not  political,  92, 
93 ;  in  the  liturgy,  93-6 ;  and  the 
unity  of  God,  96 ;  connected  with 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  104-6,  114- 

15- 
See  also  Israel,  the  kingdom  of. 

Kingdom  of  heaven,  the,  defined, 
65-6,  89. 

See  also  Kingdom  of  God,  the. 

Kings  (I),  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  God's  closeness  to 
the  earth,  29;  with  Elijah's  ex- 
cessive zeal,  52-3;  with  jealousy, 
204  (675). 

Kings  (II),  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  Naaman's  ac- 
knowledgement of  God,  26;  with 
imputed  sin,  187;  with  sin  as 
rebellion,  219;  with  the  repent- 
ance of  Manasseh,  318,  319. 

Kingship,  the,  of  God,  and  his  abode 
in  heaven,  31-2;  begins  with  the 
creation  of  man,  81,  82. 

See  also  Kingdom  of  God,  the. 

Kneading,  forbidden  on  the  Sab- 
bath, 153. 

Korah,  alluded  to,  222;  given  op- 
portunity for  repentance,  316. 

Kusari,  the,  by  Judah  Hallevi, 
quoted,  146. 

Lamb,  term  for  the  relation  between 
God  and  Israel,  47. 

Lamentations,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  Jeremiah's  proper 
zeal,  53;  with  the  kingdom  of 
God,  67;  with  the  weakening  in- 
fluence of  sin,  239;  with  the  at- 
tribute of  justice,  240. 

Law,  the,  not  connected  with  hard- 
ness, 34;  the  allegorising  method 
directed    against,     40-2;      fulfil- 


ment of,  easy  to  a  child  of  God, 

55;  derives  its  authority  from  the 
kingdom  of  God,  116;  not  a  cor- 
rect rendering  of  Torah,  117; 
holiness  the  highest  achievement 
of,  199;  relation  of  Kedushah 
and  Chasiduth  to,  201 ;  overriiled 
by  God,  for  the  sake  of  repent- 
ance, 322, 

See  also  Joy  of  the  Law ;  Legal- 
ism ;  Leviticalism ;  Mosaism ; 
Torah,  the. 

Leaven  in  the  dough,  the,  the  Evil 
Yezer,  262-3;  identified  with  the 
Evil  Yezer  in  a  prayer,  265-6; 
God  takes  the  responsibility  for, 
266,  282 ;  good  purpose  of,  266-8. 
See  also  Evil  Yezer,  the. 

Legalism,  charged  to  be  the  pre- 
dominant element  in  Jewish 
theology,  23-4;  misunderstood, 
117. 

See  also  Law,  the;  Levitical- 
ism; Mosaism;   Torah,  the. 

Legends,  on  the  revelation,  130-5; 
universalistic  tendency  of,  13 1-2. 

Levitical  impurity,  sacrifices  in- 
tended for,  296;  the  Day  of 
Atonement  concerned  with,  301. 

Leviticalism,  not  antagonistic  to 
Prophetism,  119. 

Leviticus,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  binding  laws,  13; 
with  the  election  of  Israel,  58 ;  with 
the  sanction  of  the  Law,  116; 
Scriptural  portion  for  the  Day  of 
Atonement  from,  119;  contains 
the  essential  principle  claimed  by 
Christianity  and  humanity,  119'- 
20  (bis) ;  cited,  in  connection  with 
the  intention  to  underHe  sacri- 
fices, 160;  with  God's  covenant 
with  the  patriarchs,  172  (bis); 
with  the  doctrine  of  imputed  sin, 
192  (bis);  with  the  holiness  of 
Israel,  200 ;  with  holiness  through 
separation,   205,   211;    with  sex- 


INDEX 


369 


ual  immorality,  206;  with  rela- 
tions between  man  and  his  fellow, 
215;  with  love  of  neighbour, 
226-7;  with  justice,  230;  with 
spiritual  corruption,  235 ;  with 
unintentional  sins,  241  {his) ; 
with  the  good  heart,  259;  with 
the  removal  of  the  Evil  Yezer, 
292;  with  the  punishment  of 
sinners,  293;  with  the  limited 
efficacy  of  sacrifices,  295 ;  with 
the  size  of  the  sacrifice,  297; 
with  the  scapegoat,  301 ;  with 
encouraging  sinners  to  repent, 
321. 

Liars,  excluded  from  the  Divine 
Presence,  232. 

Libertinism,  and  the  observance 
of  the  Torah,  211. 

Life  of  the  world,  epithet  for  God, 
26. 

Light,  the,  of  the  first  day,  con- 
cealed by  sin,  237. 

Light  of  the  world,  epithet  for  God, 
26. 

Limitation  theory  of  the  Cabalists, 
128. 

Lishmah,  defined  as  single-minded- 
ness  in  the  performance  of  the 
Law,  159-61;  attained  through 
the  performance  of  the  Law,  161 ; 
excludes  the  idea  of  reward,  162-3. 
See  also  Reward. 

Liturgy,  the,  a  source  for  Rabbinic 
theology,  3,  9-1 1;  as  a  theologic 
test  for  the  Talmud,  10;  early 
origin  of,  11;  in  the  Talmud,  1 1 ; 
free  from  alien  epithets  for  God, 
44;  the  fatherhood  of  God  in, 
54-6;  the  election  of  Israel  in,  57 ; 
the  kingship  prayers  in,  universal 
in  tone,  93-6;  the  kingdom  of 
God  in,  97,  105 ;  on  the  Torah  as 
a  source  of  joy,  147;  and  the 
doctrine  of  Zachuth,  184;  and 
prayers  for  the  dead,  198;  on 
holiness,  218;  prayers  for  grace 
2B 


to  conquer  the  Evil  Yezer  in,  279- 
80;  daily  prayer  for  repentance 
in,  341. 

See  also  Prayer;  Prayer  Book, 
the;  Prayers,  the,  of  the  syna- 
gogue. 

Lord  of  the  World,  epithet  for  God, 
21,  26. 

Lost  things,  keeping,  prevents  re- 
pentance, 330. 

Love  of  God,  the,  the  reason  for 
Israel's  election,  61 ;  defined,  67- 
70;  unconditional,  68;  incom- 
patible with  love  of  self,  68-9;  a 
longing  for  God,  69-70,  73-6; 
must  be  disinterested,  72,  74; 
and  the  visible  kingdom  of  God, 
78-9;  a  constituent  of  the  Torah, 
146,  147;  the  only  proper  motive 
for  the  worshipper,  163;  the  mo- 
tive for  performance  of  the  Law, 
167-9. 

Lovingkindness,  works  of,  a  weapon 
against  the  Evil  Yezer,  273;   have 
atoning  power,  312. 
See  also  Charity. 

Lust,  corresponds  to  the  Evil  Yezer, 
246;  in  the  soul  of  man,  260;  the 
world  based  on,  267. 

See  also  Sexual  immorality. 

Luther,  quoted,  on  the  intimate  re- 
lationship of  God  and  man,  51  n. 

Luzzatto,  Moses  Chayim,  on  love 
of  God,  69-70;  on  the  joy  of  the 
Law,  151;  on  Chasiduth,   209  n. 

Lydda,  alluded  to,  216. 

Maacah,  mother  of  Absalom,  al- 
luded to,  213. 

Maimonides,  and  Israel's  election, 
57;  on  the  Mizwoth,  141;  on  the 
Sabbath,  152;  on  the  fulfillment 
of  the  Mizwoth,  165;  on  repent- 
ance, 331 ;  on  the  nature  of  re- 
pentance, 335;  on  prayer  and 
repentance,  339. 

Makom.    See  Space. 


370 


INDEX 


Malachi,  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
Mosaic  revelation,  124. 

Malachi,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  the  greatness  of 
God,  58;  with  purity  of  motive  in 
performance  of  the  Law,  160-1; 
with  heresy,  226;  with  God  as 
judge  and  witness,  247 ;  with  the 
encouraging  of  repentance  in 
sinners,  321;  with  repentance 
human  and  Divine,  327. 

Malady,  the  name  for  the  Evil 
Yezer,  244. 

Man,  the  creation  of,  and  God's 
kingship,  81,  93;  a  free  agent,  81- 
2;  the  centre  of  creation,  82;  in 
rebellion,  83;  effect  of  his  con- 
sciousness of  God,  89-90;  the 
master  of  his  inclinations,  270-3. 

Manasseh,  a  Porek  ol,  221;  his  re- 
pentance acceptable  to  God,  318- 
19,  326;  his  repentance  not  the 
highest  degree,  320. 

Manners,  good,  God  a  model  of,  203. 

Marcion,  Harnack  on,  18. 

Marriage  laws,  in  the  Mishnah,  2. 

Martyrdom,  enjoined  to  prevent  the 
commission  of  the  cardinal  sins, 
222. 

Mashal,  the.  See  Allegoric  inter- 
pretation of  Scripture. 

Master  of  all  Creation,  epithet  for 
God,  22,  34. 

Masters,  slights  put  upon,  prevent 
repentance,  330. 

Material,  term  not  used  in  Rab- 
binic literature,  144. 

Material  happiness,  a  feature  of  the 
national  kingdom  of  God,  109-14; 
and  religion,  iii. 

Mechilta,  the,  censures  Israel  for 
deferring  the  kingdom  of  God,  86 ; 
numerous  citations  from  the 
Prophets  and  Hagiographa  in, 
122. 

Mediatorship,  denounced  by  the 
Rabbis,  21,  45. 


Meekness,  the  reason  for  Israel's 
election,  60. 

Meir  Ibn  Gabbai,  quoted,  on  love 
of  God,  69,  75-6. 

Memra,  epithet  for  God,  35 ;  (Word) 
as  used  by  the  Rabbis,  39,  43  n. 

Men  of  the  Great  Assembly,  and  the 
Evil  Yezer,  246-7,  250. 

Menelaus,  high  priest,  alluded  to,  92. 

Merciful  One,  epithet  for  God,  34. 

Mercy,  God's  attribute  of,  turned 
into  justice  by  sin,  239-40;  and 
repentance,  322-4;  represented 
by  the  "right  hand"  of  God,  323. 

Mercy  of  God,  to  be  imitated  by 
men,  201,  202;  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Law,  recommended, 
215-16;  lack  of,  equal  to  a  denial 
of  the  law,  231-2;  the  world 
based  on,  267. 

Merits  of  the  Fathers,  the.  See 
Zachuth. 

Messiah,  the,  pre-mundane  existence 
of  the  name,  etc.,  of,  13  n.,  59, 
128;  and  the  kingdom  of  God, 
100,  1 01 -3;  poverty  delays  the 
coming  of,  114;  exalted  beyond 
the  patriarchs,  174;  the  advent 
of,  to  banish  the  EvU  Yezer,  290- 
2. 

Messianic  aspirations,  treated  by 
the  Agadah,  3. 

Messianic  time,  the,  and  the  unity 
of  God,  96. 

Metatron,  read  into  the  Book  of 
Exodus,  41. 

Micah,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Mizwoth,  140; 
with  the  grace  needed  to  con- 
quer the  Evil  Yezer,  281 ;  with 
the  atoning  power  of  the  burnt 
offering,  299. 

Michael,  angel,  not  a  mediator,  45, 
67;  may  not  approach  Moses, 
238. 

Midrash,  the,  on  the  narratives  of 
the  Bible,  120. 


INDEX 


371 


Midrashic  works,  theologic  sources, 

3- 

Midrashim,  the.  See  Rabbis,  the; 
Rabbinic  literature,  the. 

Ministering  angels,  surrounding 
God,  28,  32. 

Miracles,  in  Rabbinic  literature,  5- 
8. 

Mishael,  justified  in  rebelling  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  107. 

Mishnah,  the,  character  of  the  con- 
tents, 2;  drawbacks  as  a  theo- 
logic source,  3-4;  liturgical  pas- 
sages in,  11;  on  the  Evil  Yezer, 
245,  246. 

Missionary  enterprises,  and  the 
Rabbis,  132. 

Mizwoth,  the,  complementary  to 
the  Torah,  11 7-1 8;  the  number 
and  divisions  of,  according  to  R. 
Simlai,  138,  141-2;  denounced  as 
a  burden,  138-9;  the  number  of, 
interpreted  homiletically,  139-40; 
which  were  obsolete  in  the  time 
of  the  Rabbis,  141 ;  which  were 
restricted  in  their  application,  141 ; 
character  of,  142;  inclusiveness 
of,  142-4;  how  considered  by 
Israel,  148;  salvation  not  de- 
pendent on  the  number  ful- 
filled, 164-6;  a  source  of  holi- 
ness, 168-9;  doctrinal  value  of, 
231. 

"Modernity,"  and  the  Rabbis,  19- 
20. 

Moloch,  laws  on  sacrifices  to,  not  a 
practical  consideration,  141. 

Mommsen,  on  the  cruelty  of  the 
Roman  government,  108-9  n. 

Montaigne,  quoted,  39. 

Moral  principles  of  the  revelation, 
unacceptable  to  the  nations,  132. 

Mosaism,  not  antagonistic  to  Proph- 
etism,  119. 

See  also  Law,  the;    Legalism; 
Leviticalism ;   Torah,  the. 

Moses,  form  of  his  acknowledgement 


of  God,  26 ;  appearance  of  God  to, 
a  proof  of  God's  omnipresence, 
29;  buried  by  God,  37;  offers 
himself  as  an  atoning  sacrifice,  53, 
310;  exalted  place  of,  as  a 
prophet,  118,  124  n.;  captures  the 
Torah  from  heaven,  130;  in- 
structed in  all  the  deductions 
from  the  Torah,  134-5;  and  the 
appointment  of  judges,  143;  in- 
vokes the  Zachuth  of  the  tribes, 
172-3;  invokes  the  Zachuth  of 
the  Fathers,  174;  the  meekness 
of,  223;  the  effect  of  sin  on,  237- 
8;  name  given  to  the  Evil  Yezer 
by,  243;  reproaches  God  for  the 
Evil  Yezer,  283;  prays  for  the 
regeneration  of  the  sinner,  316. 

Moses  Loeb,  of  Sasow,  on  scepti- 
cism, III. 

Mother,  term  for  the  relation  be- 
tween God  and  Israel,  47. 

Mothers,  the,  in  the  sense  of  the 
wives  of  the  three  patriarchs,  172. 

Murder,  and  the  doctrine  of  im- 
puted sin,  196;  a  cardinal  sin, 
205;  different  kinds  of,  213;  un- 
known, sacrifice  for,  301 ;  not 
subject  to  repentance,  333. 
See  also  Bloodshed. 

Mystic,  a,  on  repentance,  334. 

Mysticism,  and  God's  abode,  28-9, 
32;  in  Judaism,  76;  defined  by 
De  Wette,  77;   and  law,  78. 

Mystics,  the,  on  the  reciprocal  rela- 
tionship of  God  and  Israel,  47-8 
on  the  love  of  God,  68-70,  72-6 
on  the  creation  of  the  world,  128 
and  combinations  of  letters,  129 
their  view  of  the  Torah,  135;   on 
unintentional    sins,  241 ;    on    the 
heart  as  the  seat  of  the   Yezers, 
256. 

Naaman,  illustrates  the  attitude  of 

a  proselyte,  25-6. 
Nachmanides,on  imputed  sin,  186  n. ; 


372 


INDEX 


on   Chasiduth,    211-12;    on    the 
law  of  goodness,  214-15. 

Narratives,  the,  of  the  Bible,  how 
regarded,  120. 

Nationalism,  and  the  Torah,  105- 
6. 

Nazarite,  a,  cuts  off  hair  to  subdue 
the  Evil  Yezer,  277. 

Nazir,  the,  the  holiness  of,  211-12. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  justified  rebellion 
against,  107. 

New  Testament,  the,  the  Prophets 
and  Hagiographa  called  Law  in, 
125- 

New  Year,  the,  the  kingdom  of  God, 
in  the  Hturgy  of,  93-4,  105. 

Nezikin,  Talmudic  tractate,  atten- 
tion to,  identified  with  Chasi- 
duth, 209. 

Nimrod,  a  rebel,  219. 

Nineveh,  the  repentance  of  the  men 
of,  326. 

Noah,  and  the  doctrine  of  imputed 
sin,  195 ;  saved  for  the  sake  of  his 
children,  196;  the  dietary  laws 
distinguish  Israel  from  the  de- 
scendants of  {see  also  Gentiles, 
the),  207. 

Nomism.    See  Legalism. 

Nomas,  not  a  correct  rendering  of 
Torah,  117;  appUed  to  the 
Prophets   and  Hagiographa,  125. 

Numbers,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in  con- 
nection with  the  faithfulness  of 
Israel,  59 ;  with  the  superiority  of 
the  Torah,  118;  with  the  joy  of 
the  Law,  150;  with  the  holiness 
of  fulfilUng  ISiblical  command- 
ments, 208;  with  the  Porek  ol, 
221;  with  humility,  223;  with 
the  weakening  influence  of  sin, 
239 ;  with  the  Nazarite,  249 ;  with 
free  will  and  the  Evil  Yezer,  287; 
with  the  intention  underlying  sac- 
rifice, 298 ;  with  the  atoning  power 
of  the  continual  burnt  offering, 
299. 


Oaths,    administration    of,    in    the 

Mishnah,  2. 
Obadiah,    the    Book   of,    cited,    in 

connection  with  the  kingdom  of 

God,  100. 
Olah,  the.     See  Burnt  oflfering,  the. 
Old  Testament,  the,  the  economic 

ideal  of,  112. 
Only  One  of  the  world,  epithet  for 

God,  26. 
Ophanim,    the,    surrounding    God, 

28,  32. 

Palestine,  laws  on  the  conquest  of, 
obsolete,  141. 

Pantheistic  notions  in  Jewish  writ- 
ers, 27-8,  30. 

Pappos,  on  the  arbitrariness  of  God, 
305- 

Paradise,  endowed  with  pre-mun- 
dane  existence,  128. 

Pardon.     See  Forgiveness. 

Patriarchs,  the,  atone  for  Israel,  53, 
310;  teachers  of  the  kingdom  of 
God,  92 ;  have  dominion  over  the 
Evil  Yezer,  271. 

See  also  Fathers,  the. 

Paul,  apostle,  antinomian  influence 
of,  4;  attitude  of  commentators 
on  Epistles  of,  18. 

Penitence,  qualifies  for  the  kingdom 
of  God,  106. 

See  also  Repentance. 

Pentateuch,  the,  often  equivalent  to 
Torah,  118;  sometimes  con- 
sidered higher  than  the  prophets, 
118;  contains  more  than  law, 
121;  importance  of,  in  the  Mes- 
sianic time,  124  n.;  the  Prophets 
depend  on,  124. 

See  also  Law,  the ;  Torah,  the. 

People,  term  for  the  relation  of  Is- 
rael to  God,  46. 

Persecution,  the  reason  for  Israel's 
election,  60. 

Personification  of  the  Torah,  129- 
30- 


INDEX 


373 


Perushim,  those  who  abstain  from 
things  superfluous,  211. 

Petra,  an  epithet  for  Abraham,  173. 

Pharaoh,  type  of  man  deified,  39; 
why  God  hardened  his  heart,  332. 

Phenomena,  natural,  warn  men  to 
repent,  315. 

Piyutim,  fictions,  term  applied  to 
the  narratives  of  the  Bible,  120. 

Pledge,  taking  the,  of  the  poor,  pre- 
vents repentance,  330. 

Ploughing,  forbidden  on  the  Sab- 
bath, 153. 

Polytheism,  disguised,  detrimental 
to  belief  in  the  unity  of  God,  68- 

9- 
See  also  Idolatry. 

Poor,  plundering  the,  prevents  re- 
pentance, 331. 

Porek  ol,  defined,  220-1. 

Poverty,  inconsistent  with  the  king- 
dom of  God,  no;  the  Rabbis 
on,  1 1 2-1 3 ;  a  remedy  against  the 
Evil  Yezer,  278. 

Power,  the,  of  God,  38. 

Prayer,  heard  instantaneously  by 
God,  31 ;  defined  by  a  mediaeval 
Rabbi,  42;  by  Israel,  acceptable 
to  God,  49,  50-1 ;  characterised 
by  the  Rabbis,  156-7;  devotion 
indispensable  in,  156-9;  proper 
motive  for,  162;  renders  the 
Zachuth  of  the  Fathers  eflBcacious, 
180;  invalidated  by  robbery,  228- 
9,234;  accompanying  repentance, 

338-9- 

Prayer,  a,  by  a  girl  regarding  the 
Evil  Yezer,  265;  by  a  Rabbi  re- 
garding the  leaven  in  the  dough, 
265-6;  by  a  Rabbi  regarding  the 
Evil  Yezer,  277. 

Prayer  Book,  the,  and  the  charge  of 
a  transcendental  God  in  Rabbinic 
theology,  22-3,  29;  term  for  the 
kingdom  of  God  in,  89. 

See  also  Liturgy,  the;    Prayer; 
Prayers,  the,  of  the  synagogue. 


Prayers,  by  Rabbis,  for  grace  to 
conquer  the  Evil  Yezer,  278-9. 

Prayers,  the,  of  the  synagogue, 
illustrate  the  joy  of  the  Law, 
154-9;   composed  by  the  Rabbis, 

155- 

Pre-mundane  existences,  13  and  n., 
59-60,  80,  127,  128-9,  135.  314- 

Presence,  the  Divine.  See  Shechi- 
nah,  the. 

Pride,  a  form  of  idolatry,  223-4. 

Profanation  of  the  name  of  God, 
caused  by  idolatry,  223;  a  sin  not 
subject  to  repentance,  328,  329. 

Prohibitive  laws,  the  number  of,  138. 

Property  laws,  in  the  Mishnah,  2. 

Prophecy,  equivalent  to  holiness, 
217;  on  the  punishment  of  sin- 
ners, 293. 

Prophetism,  not  antagonised  by 
Mosaism,  119. 

Prophets,  the,  atone  for  Israel,  53, 
310;  plead  with  God  for  Israel, 
53-4;  demand  punishment  by 
death,    rather    than    repentance, 

J23. 

Prophets,  the,  the  books  of,  some- 
times excluded  by  the  term  Torah, 
118;  sometimes  considered  less 
than  the  Pentateuch,  118;  in- 
cluded in  the  term  Torah,  121-6; 
lessons  from,  accompany  the  Pen- 
tateuch portions,  122;  frequently 
quoted  by  the  Rabbis,  122 ;  bene- 
diction for,  123;  dependent  on 
the  Pentateuch,  124;  how  cited 
in  Rabbinic  literature,  124-5. 

Proselytes,  transitory  character  of 
opinions  on,  9-10;  inclined  to 
transcendentalism  in  acknowl- 
edging God,  25-6;  and  epithets 
for  God,  46;  in  the  kingdom  of 
God,  106. 

Proverbs,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  the  wisdom  of 
God,  38;  with  the  glorification  of 
God  through  Creation,  80;  with 


374 


INDEX 


wisdom,  127,  129;  with  the  ways 
of  the  Torah,  143;  with  the  Za- 
chuth  of  a  pious  contemporary, 
190;  with  the  doctrine  of  imputed 
sin,  193;  with  the  Zachuth  of  a 
pious  posterity,  197 ;  with  the  strict 
interpretation  of  the  Law,  216 
(bis);  with  pride,  223;  with  the 
contamination  of  sin,  234;  with 
unintentional  sins,  240;  with  the 
Evil  Yezer,  243;  with  sin  as  the 
cause  of  death,  247;  with  free 
will  and  the  Evil  Yezer,  287  (bis); 
with  the  punishment  of  sinners, 
293;  with  the  limited  efficacy  of 
sacrifices,  296;  with  atonement 
through  suffering,  309;  with 
death-bed  repentance,  340. 
Psalms,  the,  cited,  in  connection 
with  Araboth,  28,  31;  with  the 
abode  of  God,  32,  36;  with  the 
wealth  of  God,  38;  with  Israel 
forsaken  by  God,  43;  with  the 
title  applied  by  God  to  Israel,  47 ; 
with  the  election  of  Israel,  58; 
with  the  imity  of  God,  69;  with 
longing  for  God,  70;  with  the 
kingship  of  God,  82,  90,  97,  98, 
99;  and  the  Law,  116;  cited,  in 
connection  with  the  power  of 
God's  work,  121;  with  the  ex- 
tent of  the  Torah,  122;  with  the 
Torah  as  the  bride  of  Israel,  130; 
with  the  Mizwoth,  140;  with  the 
inclusiveness  of  the  Torah,  144; 
divested  of  individualistic  ten- 
dency, 155;  cited  in  connection 
with  devotion  in  prayer,  156,  157; 
with  performing  the  Law  without 
reference  to  reward,  162-3  (^^•^); 
with  the  essential  commandments, 
164;  with  negative  and  positive 
virtue,  167;  with  the  Zachuth  of 
a  pious  ancestry,  183;  with  re- 
venge, 204;  with  exaltation,  204; 
with  pride,  223;  with  the  weak- 
ening influence  of  sin,  239;  with 


the  Evil  Yezer,  242,  243,  244  (his), 
245 ;  with  sexual  intercourse,  253 ; 
with  the  clean  heart,  258;  with 
the  study  of  the  Torah  as  a 
weapon  against  the  Evil  Yezer, 
274;  with  grace  to  conquer  the 
Evil  Yezer,  78  (bis);  with  free 
will  and  the  Evil  Yezer,  286; 
with  the  punishment  of  sinners, 
293;  with  pardon  granted  by 
God,  294-5  (bis);  with  the  in- 
tention underlying  sacrifice,  298; 
with  humility  in  suffering,  310; 
with  the  act  of  revelation,  311; 
with  mercy  through  repentance, 
313;  with  God's  instruction  in 
repentance,  314-16;  with  repent- 
ance human  and  Divine,  327 
(bis),  328. 

Pseudo- Jonathan,  on  the  Evil  Yezer, 
242. 

Punishment,  the,  of  the  sinner,  293, 
294,  304. 

See  also  Reward  and  punish- 
ment. 

Queen,  epithet  of  the  Sabbath,  154. 

Rab,  and  the  strict  interpretation  of 
the  Law,  215-16. 

Rabba,  defines  Chasiduth,  209. 

Rabba  Bar  bar  Ghana,  and  the 
strict  interpretation  of  the  Law, 
215-16. 

Rabbinic  literature,   as  a  theologic 
source,  2-9,  11-16. 
See  Rabbis,  the. 

Rabbis,  the,  supposed  character- 
istics of,  2 ;  as  miracle-workers,  7 ; 
on  faith,  14;  on  sin,  14;  on  the 
closeness  of  God  to  man,  24-8, 
29-30,  31,  33;  epithets  for  God 
used  by,  26-8,  34;  and  the  doc- 
trine of  a  personal  God,  30 ;  their 
view  of  the  Law,  34 ;  on  the  names 
of  God,  35-6;  on  corporeal  terms 
applied  to  God,  36-7;   delight  in 


INDEX 


375 


humanising  God,  37-8;  object  to 
deifying  man,  38-9;  and  the 
allegorising  method,  39-44;  rev- 
erence of,  for  the  Scriptures,  42-3 ; 
substitute  the  Tetragrammaton 
for  the  epithets  for  God,  46; 
terms  applied  by,  to  the  relation 
between  God  and  Israel,  47; 
on  the  reciprocal  relation  between 
God  and  Israel,  48-9,  50-1 ;  on 
the  fatherhood  of  God,  51-6;  on 
the  election  of  Israel,  58-64;  de- 
fine the  kingdom  of  God,  65; 
on  love  of  God,  66-8,  79;  on 
freedom  in  the  kingdom  of  God, 
70-2;  on  the  character  of  the 
reward  of  the  righteous,  78;  on 
the  creation  of  man  as  a  free 
agent,  81 ;  on  the  kingship  of 
God,  82;  on  Israel's  establish- 
ing the  kingdom  of  God,  85-6, 
88-9;  on  man's  righteousness 
and  the  kingdom  of  God,  89-91 ; 
on  the  Torah  and  the  kingdom 
of  God,  91-2;  on  the  form 
of  government,  92 ;  on  the  na- 
tional kingdom  of  God,  100, 
101-3,  105,  114-15;  on  what 
constitutes  Israel  a  nation,  105- 
6;  on  the  Roman  government, 
107-9;  on  material  happiness 
connected  with  the  national 
kingdom  of  God,  109-14;  on 
poverty,  no,  11 2-1 3;  the  eco- 
nomic ideal  of,  112;  object 
to  speculation,  11 2-1 3;  on  the 
relation  of  employer  to  em- 
ployee, 113;  on  the  connection 
between  Israel  and  the  kingdom 
of  God,  1 1 4-1 5;  on  the  sanction 
of  the  Law,  116;  on  the  relative 
value  of  Moses  and  the  other 
prophets,  118;  on  the  books  of  the 
Prophets,  119,  124;  on  the  Torah 
as  the  word  of  God,  120-1 ;  on  the 
Book  of  Genesis,  121;  on  extra- 
legal elements  in  the  Torah,  121 ; 


frequently  quote  the  Prophets 
and  Hagiographa,  122;  include 
the  Hagiographa  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, 123;  extend  the  use  of 
Torah  beyond  the  Scriptures,  126; 
on  the  Torah  as  wisdom,  127; 
attitude  toward  missionary  enter- 
prises, 132;  on  the  pregnant 
meaning  of  the  Torah,  134;  on 
the  Torah  as  God's  will,  136-7; 
Mizwoth  obsolete  in  the  time  of, 
141 ;  on  the  inclusiveness  of  the 
Torah,  142-4;  make  no  division 
between  material  and  spiritual, 
144-6;  the  Torah  a  source  of 
joy  to,  146-7,  1 50-1;  on  the 
Sabbath,  152-4;  accused  of 
mechanical  tendencies,  155;  the 
composers  of  the  liturgy,  155; 
on  prayer,  155-7;  on  purity  of 
motive  in  the  performance  of 
the  Law,  1 60-1 ;  on  reward  and 
punishment,  162-3;  on  negative 
and  positive  virtue,  166-7;  on 
love  as  the  motive  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  Law,  167-9;  OJ^ 
the  ancestors  whose  Zachuth  is 
invoked,  172-3;  on  the  Fathers, 
i73~5;  01^  the  Zachuth  of  a  pious 
ancestry,  176-7,  18 1-5;  limit  the 
Zachuth  of  the  Fathers,  177-8; 
impute  unlimited  eflBcacy  to  it, 
178-81;  on  imputed  sin,  186-9; 
on  the  Zachuth  of  a  pious  con- 
temporary, 189-90;  on  the  soli- 
darity of  Israel,  191 -5;  on  im- 
puted sin  through  posterity,  196- 
7;  on  the  Zachuth  of  posterity, 
197-8;  on  holiness  as  an  Imitatio 
Dei,  199-200;  on  the  imitation 
of  God  by  man,  201-5;  o'^  sexual 
immorality,  205-6 ;  on  the  dietary 
laws,  207;  on  acts  provoking  dis- 
gust, 207;  on  Chasiduth,  209-10; 
on  the  law  of  goodness,  215-16; 
on  communion  with  God,  217-18; 
define  sin  as  rebellion,    219-20; 


376 


INDEX 


on  usury,  230-1 ;  on  separation 
from  God,  232-3;  on  the  con- 
tamination of  sin,  233-6;  on  sin 
as  folly,  236-7;  on  the  blighting 
influence  of  sin,  237-40;  on  un- 
intentional sins,  240-1 ;  on  the 
two  Yezers,  243;  give  various 
names  to  the  Evil  Yezer,  243-4; 
on  the  activity  of  the  Evil  Yezer, 
244-7;  ori  the  period  in  which 
the  Evil  Yezer  takes  possession  of 
man,  252-5;  do  not  consider 
man  corrupt,  262;  keep  to  the 
golden  mean,  264;  on  the  leaven 
in  the  dough,  266;  on  weapons 
against  the  Evil  Yezer,  273;  on 
the  uses  of  the  study  of  the  Torah 
against  the  Evil  Yezer,  275;  on 
ascetic  remedies  against  the  Evil 
Yezer,  277;  on  grace  to  conquer 
the  Evil  Yezer,  278-84;  on  the 
punishment  of  sinners,  293-4;  on 
the  intention  underlying  sacri- 
fices, 297-8 ;  on  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, 301-4;  on  the  justice  of 
God,  304-6;  offer  themselves  as 
an  atonement  for  Israel,  311;  on 
God's  instruction  of  men  in  re- 
pentance, 314-15;  on  relapsing 
into  sin,  339. 

Rahab,  illustrates  the  attitude  of 
the  proselyte,  26. 

Reaping,  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath, 

Rebellion,  against  God,  the  first 
sin,  83;  the  sin  of  Israel,  86-8; 
definition  of  sin  by  the  Rabbis, 
219-22,  233. 

Reciprocal  relation  between  God 
and  Israel,  47-9,  50-1. 

Reconciliation  with  God,  through 
sacrifices,  limited  in  efficacy,  295- 
7;  through  death  and  suffering, 
307-8;  through  confession  of  sin, 
338. 

See  also  Atonement,    Repent- 


Regulations  of  Chasiduth,  by  Elie- 
zer  of  Worms,  quoted,  210. 

Religion,  place  of  material  happiness 
in.  III. 

Remnant,  the,  of  Israel,  establishes 
the  kingdom  of  God,  88-9, 

Renan,  quoted,  155. 

Reparation,  a  condition  of  accept- 
able repentance,  333. 
See  also  Restitution. 

Repentance,  treated  by  the  Aga- 
dah,  3;  accepted  instantaneously 
by  God,  31 ;  endowed  with  pre- 
mundane  existence,  128,  314; 
restores  efficacy  to  the  Zachuth 
of  the  Fathers,  180-1,  185  n.;  en- 
sures forgiveness  for  sins,  293-4; 
ways  of  achieving,  294;  must 
accompany  sacrifices,  294,  296-7, 
313;  on  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
302-3;  for  the  Evil  Yezer,  304, 
313;  prayer  for,  313;  the  only 
means  of  atonement,  313;  urged 
by  God  himself,  314-16,  319; 
possible  for  the  greatest  sins,  317, 
318,  325-6,  333-4;  Manasseh  an 
extreme  instance  of,  318-19,  320; 
through  fear,  of  a  low  order,  320; 
and  restitution,  320;  encouraged 
through  intercourse  between  saints 
and  sinners,  321;  opposed  by 
the  angels,  321-2;  and  God's 
attributes  of  justice  and  mercy, 
322-4;  the  good  portion  assigned 
to  this  world,  324;  an  act  of 
grace,  324;  depends  on  the  ini- 
tiative of  man,  324,  327,  334; 
false  shame  not  to  stand  in  the 
way  of,  324-5;  need  not  be 
public,  326;  a  mutual  relation 
between  God  and  man,  327-8; 
inefficacious  in  five  cases,  328- 
3O)  333'y  prevented  by  twenty- 
four  things,  330-1 ;  Maimonides 
on,  331,  335,  339;  inefficacious 
after  three  warnings,  332;  must 
be    accompanied    by    reparation, 


INDEX 


Z11 


333;  a  mystic's  view  of,  334; 
the  nature  of,  334;  consists  of 
acts,  334-5;  must  be  accom- 
panied by  confession  of  sin,  335- 
8;  and  prayer,  338-9;  and  fast- 
ing, 339-40;  on  the  death-bed, 
340-1;  daily,  342;  during  the 
Ten  Penitential  Days,  342;  not 
limited  to  special  seasons,  342-3. 
See  also  Penitence. 

Restitution,    a   condition   of  atone- 
ment for  moral  sins,  296,  303 ;  and 
repentance,  320. 
See  also  Reparation. 

Resurrection,  controversy  about  the 
Scriptural  authority  for  the  belief 
in,  124-5. 

Reuben  ben  Astrobolis,  Rabbi,  on 
the  time  when  the  Evil  Yezer 
takes  possession  of  man,  252. 

Revelation,  the,  indispensable  to 
the  existence  of  the  world,  128-9; 
the  day  of,  in  Rabbinic  literature, 
1 30-1 ;  universalistic  feature  of, 
131-2,  133,  135;  moral  features 
of,  unacceptable  to  the  Gentiles, 
132;  an  act  of  grace,  133-5;  due 
to  the  Zachuth  of  the  Fathers,  1 74 ; 
and  the  doctrine  of  imputed  sin, 
195;  the  act  of,  made  dependent 
upon  the  children  of  the  Israelites, 

311- 

See  also  Law,  the ;  Pentateuch, 
the;   Torah,  the. 

Revenge,  and  the  imitation  of  God, 
204. 

Reward,  the,  of  the  righteous,  R. 
Jose  on,  14;  not  the  motive  for 
the  performance  of  the  Law,  167, 
169. 

See  also  Lishmah. 

Reward  and  punishment,  in  the 
Rabbinical  system,   162-3. 

'Right  hand,"  the,  of  God,  repre- 
sents the  attribute  of  mercy,  323. 

Righteous,  the,  reward  of,  14;  com- 
pose the  kingdom  of  God,   106; 


how  they  diflFer  from  the  wicked, 
270-1 ;  and  the  appearance  of 
the  Evil  Yezer,  290;  the  atoning 
power  of,  310. 

Righteous  One  of  the  world,  epithet 
for  God,  26. 

Righteousness,  imputed.  See  Za- 
chuth. 

Righteousness,  treated  by  the  Aga- 
dah,  3;  establishes  the  kingdom 
of  God,  89-90,  93;  culminates 
in  holiness,  199;  and  the  Zachuth, 
176,  180,  189-90;  of  God,  to  be 
imitated  by  man,  202. 

Ritual  observances,  attacked  by  the 
Evil  Yezer,  251. 

Robbery,  a  form  of  bloodshed,  227- 
9;  invalidates  sacrifices,  228; 
invalidates  charity,  228;  invali- 
dates prayer,  228-9,  234;  not 
subject  to  repentance,  333. 

Rome,  identified  with  the  enemies 
of  the  kingdom  of  God,  99-101, 
106-9;  obedience  to,  enjoined 
upon  Israel,  107;  objection  to 
the  government  of,  107-8;  con- 
sidered corrupt  by  the  Rabbis, 
108-9. 

Saadya,  Rabbi,  on  what  constitutes 
Israel  a  nation,  105;  defines  the 
worshipper,  164;  on  relapsing 
into  sin,  339. 

Sabbath,  the,  man  the  lord  of,  152; 
attacks  upon,  152-3;  illustrates 
the  joy  of  the  Law,  153-4; 
celebrated  by  the  observers  of  it, 
153-4;  epithets  given  to,  154; 
profanation  of,  due  to  the  Evil 
Yezer,  246. 

Sacrifices,  invalidated  by  robbery, 
228;  accompanied  by  repent- 
ance, 294,  296-7;  limited  in  efl5- 
cacy  as  a  means  of  atonement, 
295-7;  charity  superior  to,  296; 
efficacy  depends  upon  the  inten- 
tion,  297-8;    atoning  power  as- 


378 


INDEX 


signed  to,  by  the  Rabbis,  300-1 ; 
suffering  compared  to,  308-9; 
death  compared  to,  310;  the 
Torah  and  charity  compared  to, 
312;  demanded  by  the  Torah, 
323. 

Safety,  term  for  the  relation  between 
God  and  Israel,  46. 

Saintliness.     See  Chasiduth. 

Saints,  associate  with  sinners  to 
encourage  repentance,  321. 

"Saints,  The,  Chapters  of,"  mir- 
acles reported  in,  6. 

Salvation,  not  dependent  on  the 
number  of  commandments  ful- 
filled, 164;  secured  by  the  fulfil- 
ment of  one  commandment,  165- 
6;  secured  by  negative  virtues, 
166-7;  depends  upon  the  actions 
of  man,  182,  189. 

Salvation,  term  for  the  relation 
between  God  and  Israel,  46. 

Samael,  identified  with  the  Evil 
Yezer,  246,  262. 

Samaritans,  the,  on  what  is  to  be 
included  under  Torah,  122. 

Samuel  (I),  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  the  foundations 
of  the  world,  173;  with  the  Za- 
chuth  of  posterity,  197. 

Samuel  (II),  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  Israel  in  rebel- 
lion, 87;  with  the  righteous  as 
the  pillars  of  the  spiritual  world, 
89. 

Samuel  de  Ozedo,  quoted,  on  dis- 
interested love  of  God,  72  n. 

Samuel  Hakaton,  worthy  of  the 
Divine  Presence,  238. 

Satan,  identified  with  the  Evil 
Yezer,  244-5,  251-2,  268;  har- 
bours good  intentions  concerning 
Job,  268;  cannot  enter  the  Beth- 
Hammidrash,  274. 

Scapegoat,  the,  the  atoning  power 
of,  301. 

Scepticism,    reason    for,    given    by 


Moses  Loeb,  of  Sasow,  in;   due 

to  the  Evil  Yezer,  251-2. 
Scoffers,  excluded  from  the  Divine 

Presence,  232. 
Scoffing,  prevents  repentance,  331, 
Scriptures,    the,    the   conception   of 

the   kingdom   of   God   in,    65-6; 

included  in  the  term  Torah,  121- 

6;    knowledge  of,  required  of  the 

Talmid  Chacham,  122. 

See  also  Law,  the ;  Pentateuch, 

the;    Prophets,  the;   Torah,  the. 
Secret  sin.     See  Sin,  secret. 
Sectarianism,    how    dealt    with    in 

Rabbinic   literature,    10   and   n.; 

opposed  by  the  Rabbis    through 

Scriptural  interpretations,  36-7. 
Seder  Elijah,  the,  term  for  sin  in, 

233. 
Seducing,  the  function  of  the  Evil 

Yezer,   248;    others,  prevents  re- 
pentance, 329,  330,  S33- 
See  also  Tempting. 
Self,    love    of,    incompatible    with 

love  of  God,  68. 
Self-aggrandisement  at  the  expense 

of    others,    prevents    repentance, 

330- 
Separateness,     and    holiness,     205; 

Nachmanides  on,  211-12. 
See  Holiness. 
Separation  between  God  and  man, 

caused  how,  232-3. 
Seraphim    the,    surrounding    God, 

28,  32. 
Serpent,  the,  identified  with  the  Evil 

Yezer,  246,  262,  282. 
Sexual    immorality,    denounced    by 

the   Rabbis,    205-6;    due  to  the 

Evil     Yezer,     246;      affects     the 

minority  of  men,  250. 
See  also  Adultery. 
Sexual   intercourse,    subject   to   re- 
strictions, 211;    tainted  with  sin, 

253. 
Shame,  not  to  stand  in  the  way  of 

repentance,  324-5. 


INDEX 


379 


Shammai,  not  a  miracle- worker,  7. 

Shammai,  the  school  of,  on  the  cre- 
ation of  man,  8;  on  the  atoning 
power  of  the  burnt  offering,  299. 

Shechinah,  epithet  for  God,  35. 

Shechinah,  the,  as  used  by  the  Rab- 
bis, 39 ;  removed  by  idolatry,  223 ; 
removed  by  pride,  223;  not  re- 
spected by  a  violent  man,  224; 
removed  by  adultery,  224-5;  re- 
moved by  murder,  226;  removed 
by  slander,  227;  removed  by  the 
bad  administration  of  justice, 
229-30;  removed  by  disrespect, 
232;  removed  by  sin  in  general, 
232-3,  238;  classes  of  persons 
excluded  from,  232;  revealed 
upon  the  removal  of  the  Evil 
Yezer,  292. 

Shedding  of  blood.  See  Bloodshed; 
Murder. 

Shema,  the,  and  the  universal 
kingdom  of  God,  64;  and  the 
kingdom  of  God,  65,  66-7,  71 ; 
Israel's  confession  of  faith,  119. 

Shepherd,  term  for  the  relation  be- 
tween God  and  Israel,  46,  49. 

Shirah  (Song),  the,  and  the  kingdom 
of  God,  85. 

Shofar,  the  sound  of  the,  an  invi- 
tation to  repentance,  342. 

Simlai,  Rabbi,  on  the  Mizwoth, 
138-40. 

Simon,  Rabbi,  on  Israel's  connec- 
tion with  the  kingdom  of  God, 
98. 

Simon  ben  Jochai,  on  the  responsi- 
bility of  God  for  the  existence  of 
the  Evil  Yezer,  281. 

Simon  the  Just,  on  the  Evil  Yezer, 
248-9. 

Simon  Kiara,  on  the  Mizwoth,  141. 

Simon  ben  Lakish,  Rabbi,  on  the 
abode  of  God,  30-1 ;  sums  up 
the  activity  of  the  Evil  Yezer, 
244,  245- 

Sin,  treated  by  the  Agadah,  3;    the 


Rabbis  on,  14;  separates  man 
from  God,  33;  has  no  effect  upon 
the  paternal  relation  between  God 
and  Israel,  54;  angels  incapable 
of,  81 ;  disfigures  man  and  the 
world,  83;  counteracted  by  the 
Zachuth  of  the  Fathers,  174; 
caused  by  the  heart  and  the  eyes, 
208;  defined  by  the  Rabbis  as 
rebellion,  219-22;  causes  the 
separation  of  man  from  God, 
232-3,  241 ;  various  equivalents 
for,  233-5;  a  symptom  of  cor- 
ruption, 235-6;  described  as 
folly,  236-7;  has  a  blighting  in- 
fluence upon  the  world,  237-40; 
man  persuaded  to,  by  the  Evil 
Yezer,  245,  260;  death  the  con- 
sequence of,  245,  247;  children 
immune  from,  254;  the  agents 
of,  258;  sways  the  soul,  260-1; 
relapsing  into,  339-40. 

See  also  Evil  Yezer,  the;  Im- 
puted sin;  Sins;  Sins,  the  car- 
dinal, etc. 

Sin,  imputed.     See  Imputed  sin. 

Sin,  secret,  and  the  doctrine  of  im- 
puted sin,  194;  classified  with 
blasphemy,  222. 

Sin,  unintentional,  held  in  abhor- 
rence like  others,  240-1;  a  sign 
of  carelessness,  240-1 ;  Nach- 
manides  on,  241 ;  sin  offering  for, 
296. 

Sin  offering,  the,  accompanied  by 
repentance,  296. 

Sins,  the  number  of,  not  to  stand 
in  the  way  of  repentance,  325; 
the  character  of,  not  to  stand  in 
the  way  of  repentance,  325-6, 
333-4;  repentance  for,  ineffica- 
cious if  repeated,  328-9,  330. 

Sins,  the  cardinal,  enumerated,  205- 
6;  sins  of  rebellion,  222-32;  have 
appurtenances,  223;  exceeded  by 
hatred,  227;  called  evil  things, 
232. 


380 


INDEX 


See  also  Adultery;    Bloodshed; 
Idolatry. 
Sins,  the  confession  of.     See  Confes- 
sion of  sins,  the. 

See  also  Evil  Yezer,  the;    Sin; 
Sins,  the  cardinal. 
Sister,  term  for  the  relation  between 

God  and  Israel,  47, 
Skinning,  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath, 

153- 

Slander,  a  form  of  bloodshed,  227; 
called  an  evil  thing,  232;  a  com- 
mon sin,  250-1 ;  habitual,  pre- 
vents repentance,  330. 

Slavery,  describes  the  relation  of 
Israel  to  God,  in  certain  condi- 
tions, 55  and  n. 

Social  misery,  inconsistent  with  the 
kingdom  of  God,  no. 

Sodom  and  the  doctrine  of  Za- 
chuth,  190;  the  people  of,  rebels, 
219,  222 ;  cause  pain  to  God,  219- 
20;   warned  to  repent,  315. 

Solidarity,   of  Israel,   and  the  doc- 
trine of  imputed  sin,  191-5. 
See  also  Community,  the. 

Solomon,  throws  off  the  yoke  of 
God,  87;  name  given  to  the  Evil 
Yezer  by,  243. 

Solomon,  The  Psalms  of,  not  useful 
as  a  source  of  Rabbinic  theology, 

4-5- 
Song  of  Songs,  cited,  in  connection 

with  the  sweetness  of  the  Law,  137 ; 

with  the  contamination  of  sin,  134. 
Soul,    the,    the    mystics    on,     241 ; 

equivalent  to  the  heart,  260-1. 
See  also  Heart,  the. 
Sowing,  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath, 

153- 

Space  of  the  world,  epithet  for  God, 
26,  34;  does  not  imply  remote- 
ness, 34,  46. 

Spinning,  forbidden  on  the  Sab- 
bath, 153. 

Spiritual,  term  not  used  in  Rabbinic 
literature,  144. 


Spite  towards  God,  220. 

Spoiler,  the,  name  for  the  EvU 
Yezer,  244. 

Statutes,  the,  observance  of,  under- 
mined by  the  Evil  Yezer,  251. 

Stay  of  the  world,  epithet  for  God, 
26. 

Stone,  name  for  the  Evil  Yezer,  243 ; 
allegory  on,  274. 

Strange  God,  name  for  the  Evil 
Yezer,  244. 

Strength,  epithet  for  God,  34. 

"Stretching  the  hand  into  the  root," 
blasphemy,  222. 

"Strong  hand,"  the,  equivalent  to 
the  "right  hand,"  322. 

Students,  and  the  doctrine  of  im- 
puted sin,  193. 

Stumbling-block,  name  for  the  Evil 
Yezer,  243. 

Suffering,  treated  by  the  Agadah,  3 ; 
inconsistent  with  the  kingdom  of 
God,  iio-ii;  the  punishment  of 
the  sinner,  293,  294,  304;  an 
atonement,  304,  307-10;  to  be 
accepted  submissively,  309-10. 

Supreme,  epithet  for  God,  21, 

Suspicion  of  the  upright,  prevents 
repentance,  331. 

System  der  Altsynagogalen  Palds- 
tinensischen  Theologie,  by  Weber, 
charges  Jewish  theology  with  ex- 
cessive legalism,  23-4. 

Taanith,  Talmudic  tractate,  mir- 
acles reported  in,  6. 

Tabernacle,  the  laws  about  the,  ob- 
solete, 141. 

Talmid  Chacham,  the,  knowledge 
of  the  Scriptures  required  of, 
122. 

Talmud,  the,  as  a  theologie  source, 
5-6,  9-1 1 ;  composite  character 
of,  9-1 1 ;  liturgical  elements  in, 
II. 

Talmud,  the  Babylonian,  epithet 
for  God  in,  34. 


INDEX 


381 


Talmudical  works,  theologic  sources, 

Tanna,  the,  of  the  School  of  Elijah, 
on  Israel's  election,  61-2. 

Tannaitic  times,  origin  of  the  liturgy 
in,  II. 

Tanning,  forbidden  on  the  Sab- 
bath, 153. 

Targum,  the,  on  the  Evil  Yezer,  243. 

Targumim,    the,    epithets   for   God 
used   in,    35;    commentators    on, 
not  systematic  theologians,  15-16. 
See  also  Rabbis,  the. 

Tempting,  the  function  of  the  Evil 
Yezer,  248. 
See  also  Seducing. 

Ten  Penitential  Days,  a  call  to  re- 
pentance, 342;  ascetic  practices 
connected  with,  342. 

Tetragrammaton,  the,  applied  to 
the  God  of  mercy,  36,  239;  con- 
nected with  the  Scriptural  de- 
scription of  the  sacrifices,  45; 
ordered  to  be  pronounced,  to 
guard  against  heresies,  45;  sub- 
stituted for  epithets  for  God,  46; 
a  pre-mundane  existence,  80. 

Theocracy,  a,  the  only  form  of  gov- 
ernment known    to    the  Rabbis, 

92,  93- 

Theology,  Rabbinic,  sources  of,  2-6, 
9-1 1 ;  not  a  formal  system,  1 2-1 7 ; 
impulsive  character  of,  12-13; 
lacks  logicality,  13-15,  3°;  dif- 
ficulty of  systematising,  16-17; 
Jewish  attitude  of  author  to,  17- 
18;  attitude  of  author  to,  not 
apologetic,  18-20;  exalted  char- 
acter of,  20;  charged  with  hav- 
ing a  transcendental  God,  21-2, 
23;  not  influenced  by  mystical 
and  pantheistic  notions  of  God's 
abode,  30. 

See  also  Rabbis,  the. 

Theosophy,  and  the  Torah,  135. 

Thieves,  partnership  with,  pre- 
vents repentance,  330. 


Throne  of  glory,  the,  28,  32. 

Tochachoth,  the,  make  the  Book  of 
Deuteronomy  an  Imitatio  Dei, 
119. 

Torah,  the,  and  the  creation  of  the 
world,  81 ;  and  the  kingdom  of 
God,  91-2;  makes  Israel  a  na- 
tion, 105-6;  forced  denial  of, 
absolves  from  obedience  to  Rome, 
107;  the  term  misunderstood, 
II 6-1 7;  not  correctly  rendered 
by  Law,  etc.,  117;  what  it  con- 
veys to  the  Jew,  117,  125;  Miz- 
woth  complementary  to,  11 7-1 8; 
often  equivalent  to  Pentateuch, 
118;  Scriptural  warrant  for  the 
superiority  of,  118;  the  Prophets 
a  commentary  on,  119;  dictated 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  120;  legal 
part  of,  begins  in  Exodus,  1 20-1 ; 
not  always  confined  to  the  Pen- 
tateuch, 1 2 1-6;  name  applied  to 
the  Prophets  and  Hagiographa, 
125;  extends  beyond  the  Scrip- 
tures, 126;  as  a  revelation  and  a 
promise,  127;  identified  with 
wisdom,  127-8,  129,  135;  en- 
dowed with  a  mystical  life;  129- 
30;  wedded  to  Israel,  130;  cap- 
tured from  heaven,  130;  refused 
by  the  Gentiles,  131-2;  intended 
for  the  Gentiles  as  well  as  Israel, 
133;  potentialities  of,  134-5;  the 
Rabbinical  view  of,  1 36-7 ;  char- 
acter of  the  laws  in,  142;  inclu- 
siveness  of,  142-4,  146;  based  on 
the  execution  of  justice,  143;  the 
Kusari  on,  146;  a  source  of  joy 
to  the  Rabbis,  146-7;  how  con- 
sidered by  Israel,  148;  joy  an 
essential  element  in  the  under- 
standing of,  148;  material  uses 
of,  deprecated,  154,  i59",  dis- 
interested performance  of,  159- 
69;  occupation  with,  a  positive 
virtue,  167;  love  the  motive  for 
the    performance    of,    167-9;     * 


382 


INDEX 


source  of  holiness,  i68,  208;  ob- 
servance of,  and  libertinism,  211; 
correctives  of,  212-16;  a  mer- 
ciful interpretation  of,  recom- 
mended, 215-16;  with  holiness 
brings  communion  with  God,  217; 
how  regarded  by  the  Porek  ol,  220- 
I ;  denied  by  the  usurer  and  the 
unmerciful,  231-2;  defiled  by 
immorality,  234;  the  study  of,  a 
weapon  against  the  Evil  Yezer, 
273-5;  how  it  operates,  275; 
grace  needed  for  efficacy  of,  278; 
on  the  punishment  of  sinners,  293 ; 
the  atoning  power  of,  312;  de- 
mands sacrifices  rather  than 
repentance,  323;  and  God's 
attribute  of  mercy,  323. 

See  also  Joy  of  the  Law ;  Law, 
the ;  Legalism ;  Leviticalism ;  Miz- 
woth,  the ;  Pentateuch,  the ;  Rabbis 
the;  Revelation;  Scriptures,  the. 

Torah,  the,  yoke  of.  See  Kingdom 
of  God,  the. 

Torath  ha-Adam,  the  Torah  in  its 
universalistic  aspect,  133. 

Tosephta,  the,  on  the  command- 
ment of  forgetfulness,  149. 

Tower,  generation  of  the,  rebels, 
219;  conceal  the  light  of  the  first 
day,  237;    warned  to  repent,  315. 

Transcendentalism,  charged  against 
the  God  of  Rabbinic  theology, 
21-2;  disproved  by  the  Prayer 
Book,  22-3,  29;  disproved  by 
the  Rabbinic  sources,  24-8,  29- 
30.  31.  33-4;  a  failing  of  prose- 
lytes, 25-6. 

See  also  under  God. 

Treasure,  term  for  the  relation  of 
Israel  to  God,  46. 

Tribes,  the,  the  Zachuth  of,  invoked 
by  Moses,  172-3. 

Tumah,  term  applied  to  the  cardi- 
nal sins,  205,  206. 

See  also  Adultery;  Sins,  the 
cardinal. 


Ula  bar  Koseheb,  and  the  law  of 
saints,  216. 

Unchaste  thoughts,  equivalent  to 
adultery,  214. 

Unchastity,  included  under  adul- 
tery, 225. 

See  also  Adultery;    Sexual  im- 
morality. 

Uncircumcised,  name  for  the  Evil 
Yezer,  243. 

Unclean,  name  for  the  Evil  Yezer, 
243- 

Uncovering  of  faces,  the,  and  the 
Porek  ol,  220-1. 

Unintentional  sin.  See  Sin,  unin- 
tentional. 

Uniqueness  of  Israel,  48. 

Unity,  the  Song  of,  quoted,  27-8; 
158-9. 

Unity  of  God,  the,  emphasised,  43- 
4;  declared  by  Israel,  48;  things 
detrimental  to  the  belief  in,  68-9; 
and  love  of  God,  75 ;  to  be  realised 
in  the  Messianic  time,  96. 

Universal  character  of  the  kingdom 
of  God,  93. 

Universalism,  repugnant  to  the 
Rabbis,  without  the  Torah,  105-6. 

Universalistic  features  of  the  Sinaitic 
revelation,  131-2,  133. 

Usury,  fulfilment  of  the  command- 
ment on,  a  condition  of  the  Exo- 
dus, 230-1 ;  a  sin  equal  to  mur- 
der, 231;  a  denial  of  the  Law, 
231-2. 

Vanity,  exposes  one  to  the  Evil 
Yezer,  248-9;  the  EvU  Yezer 
chiefly  representative  of,  276. 

Vile  language,  incompatible  with 
holiness,  211-12. 

Vine,  the,  a  symbol  for  Israel,  175. 

Vineyard,  term  for  the  relation  of 
Israel  to  God,  49. 

Watcher,  term  for  the  relation  of 
God  to  Israel,   49. 


INDEX 


383 


Wealth,  the,  of  God,  38;  desire  for, 
not  counted  among  the  great 
passions,  250;  in  the  soul  of 
man,  260;  auxiliary  to  the  Evil 
Yezer,  277. 
Weaving,  forbidden  on  the  Sab- 
bath, 153. 
Weber,     charges     Jewish    theology 

with  excessive  legalism,  23-4. 
Wicked,  the,  forfeit  the  Zachuth  of 
the   Fathers,    179-80;     how   they 
differ  from  the  righteous,  270-1; 
and  the  appearance  of  the  EvU 
Yezer,  290;   association  with,  pre- 
vents repentance,  330. 
Widows,    plundering,    prevents    re- 
pentance, 331. 
Will   of   God,    manifested   in   crea- 
tion, 80. 
Wine-drinking,  restricted,  211. 
Winnowing,  forbidden  on  the  Sab- 
bath, 153. 
Wisdom,  the,   of  God,   38;    Jesus, 
the  son  of  Sirach,  on,  70;  the  yoke 
of,  a  glory,  70;   equivalent  to  the 
Torah,  127,  129,  135. 
Wisdom     (Hagiographa),     on     the 

punishment  of  sinners,  293. 
Wisdom  literature,  the,  and  the  Law, 

116. 
Wise,  attribute  applied  to  Israel  by 

God,  47- 
Women,    looking    at,    prevents   re- 
pentance, 330. 
Word.     See  Memra. 
Work,    thirty-nine    kinds    of,    for- 
bidden on  the  Sabbath,  153. 
Workmen,  treatment  of,   urged   by 

the  Rabbis,  11 3-1 4. 
Works,    Rabbi   Akiba   on   the  jus- 
tification   by,    15-16;     and    the 
love  of  God,  75. 
World,  Lord  of  the,  epithet  for  God, 

21,  26. 
World,  the,  relation  of  God  to,  21- 
45;     epithets    describing    God's 
relation  to,   26-8;    fate  of,   may 


depend  on  a  single  action,   189- 
90;     chosen    as    his    portion    by 
Esau,  100;    the  seat  of  the  king- 
dom of  God,  104;   purpose  of  the 
creation  of,   80-1 ;    plunged  into 
chaos  by  sin,  83 ;    is  the  kingdom 
of  God,  89. 
World,    the    future,    chosen   as   his 
portion  by   Jacob,   100;    persons 
destined    for,    165-6;     the    Evil 
Yezer  subdued  in,  283;  justice  to 
prevail  in,  307. 
Worship,  due  to  God  alone,  44-5- 
Writing,  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath, 
153- 

Yezer,  the,  equivalent  to  the  EvU 
Yezer,  262. 

Yezer  Hara.     See  Evil  Yezer,  the. 

Yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  the. 
See  Kingdom  of  God,  the ;  King- 
dom of  God,  the  invisible ;  King- 
dom of  God,  the  visible;  King- 
dom of  heaven,  the. 

Yoke  of  the  Torah,  the.  See 
Kingdom  of  God,  the. 

Zachuth,  acquired  through  the  com- 
mandments, 164;  place  of,  the 
doctrine  in  Judaism,  170;  ety- 
mology, etc.,  of  the  word,  170-1; 
divisions  of  the  subject,  171-3; 
and  individual  righteousness,  176, 
189-90. 

See  also  Zachuth,  the,  of  the 
Fathers,  etc. 

Zachuth,  the,  of  a  pious  ancestry, 
171,  175-7,  181-5;  defined,  175- 
7;  individual  righteousness  and, 
176;  extension  of,  181-3;  does 
not  relieve  the  individual  from 
responsibility,  183-5;  in  the 
liturgy,   184;    and  trust  in  God, 

184-5- 
Zachuth,   the,    of   a   pious   contem- 
porary,    defined,     189-90;      and 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  190. 


3^4 


INDEX 


Zachuth,  the,  of  a  pious  posterity, 
195,  196-7;  limited,  197;  and 
the  dead,  198. 

See  also  Children. 

Zachuth,  the,  of  Israel,  and  the 
kingdom  of  God,  98. 

Zachuth,  the,  of  the  Fathers,  in  re- 
lation to  the  patriarchs,  17 1-5; 
called  a  rock,  173;  historical 
events  attributed  to,  174-5; 
limited,  177-8 ;  unlimited,  1 78-81 . 

Zachuth,  the,  of  the  Mothers,  in 
relation  to  the  wives  of  the  three 
patriarchs,  172;  invoked  at 
public  fasts,  172. 


Zadok,  Rabbi,  prayer  by,  regard- 
ing the  Sabbath,  153;  on  material 
uses  of  the  Torah,  154,  159. 

Zebaoth,  God  in  war,  35. 

Zechariah,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  God's  relation 
to  the  Gentiles,  64. 

Zephaniah,  the  Book  of,  cited,  in 
connection  with  God's  relation  to 
the  Gentiles,  64. 

Zerachya  ben  Shealtiel,  on  the 
spiritualisation  of  the  Scriptures, 
103. 

Zohar,  the,  on  the  Evil  Yezer,  246. 


Studies  in  Judaism 

By  SOLOMON  SCHECHTER,  M.A.,  Litt.D. 

President  of  The  Jewish  Theological  Seminary  of  America  since  1902;  formerly 
Reader  in  Talmudic,  Cambridge  University;  Professor  of  Hebrew,  University  Col- 
lege of  London,  1898-1902;  Author  of  ' '  Some  Aspects  of  Rabbinic  Theology. ' ' 

Cloth^  i2mo,  j66  pageSy  $1.75  ^et 

The  Reform  Movement 
in  Judaism 

By  DAVID  PHILIPSON,  D.D. 

Author  of  ' '  The  Jew  in  English  Fiction, ' '  etc. 

Cloth,  8vo,  j8i  pages,  $2.00  net 

"The  book  is,  to  our  mind,  the  best  on  this  subject  ever  written.  Dr.  Phil- 
ipson  takes  pains  to  represent  the  history  of  the  reform  movement  so  far  as 
he  obtained  it  from  weekHes,  monthlies,  books,  and  private  letters  —  a  litera- 
ture of  nearly  a  century's  duration.  The  author  condenses  a  literature  of  sev- 
eral thousand  pages  into  564  pages,  and  presents  to  us  his  history  in  a  splendid 
English  and  splendid  order.  This  work  deserves  the  highest  appreciation, 
and  without  the  slightest  hesitation  do  we  recommend  it  to  the  public  at 
large,  and  more  especially  to  our  co-religionists  in  this  country."  — Jewish 
Tribune. 

"A  series  of  studies  which  aim  to  present  a  connected  story  of  the  pro- 
gressive movement  in  Judaism  .  .  .  setting  forth  the  purposes  and  accom- 
plishments of  the  reform  movement.  The  beginnings  of  the  reform  are  dis- 
cussed and  chapters  are  devoted  to :  The  Geiger-Tiktin  affair,  The  Hamburg 
Temple  prayer-book  controversy.  Reform  in  England,  Rabbinical  conferences, 
1844-46,  the  Reform  Congregation  of  Berlin,  The  Breslau  'Friends  of 
reform,'  Reform  in  Hungary,  The  Leipzig  and  Augsburg  synods,  Reform  in 
the  United  States  and  Recent  developments  in  Europe."  —  Book  Reviezu 
Digest. 

PUBLISHED  BY 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 


Judaism  as  Creed  and  Life 

By  the  Rev.  MORRIS  JOSEPH 

Cloth,  crown  8vo,  $i.6o  net 

CONTENTS 

PREFACE  AND  INTRODUCTION 

Hebrew  Authorities  —  Religion  in  General  —  The  Bible  —  Other  Sources  of 
Judaism. 

BELIEFS 

Faith  and  Reason  — The  Existence  of  God  — The  Nature  of  God  — The 
Divine  in  Man  —  Man  is  Free — God  and  Man  — The  Mystery  of  Pain  — 
The  Highest  Service  —  The  Future  Life  —  Israel's  Mission. 

CEREMONIAL 

The  Dietary  Laws  and  Jewish  Separatism  —  The  Historic  Consciousness  — 
The  Holy  Days  —  The  Sabbath  —  Passover — Pentecost  —  Tabernacles  — 
New  Moon  and  New  Year  —  The  Day  of  Atonement  —  The  Minor  Fasts  and 
Feasts  —  Public  Worship  —  The  Synagogue  and  its  Services  —  The  Jewish 
Calendar. 

MORAL  DUTIES 

Duties  toward  God  —  Humility  and  Kindred  Virtues  —  Prayer  —  Sincerity 
—  Duties  to  Self  —  The  Physical,  the  Intellectual  and  the  Spiritual  Life  — 
Duties  to  Others  — The  Golden  Rule  — The  Family— Integrity  — Truthful- 
ness and  Kindred  Virtues —  Benevolence  —  Duties  to  the  State  —  Duties  to 
the  Religious  Community. 


"  A  good,  a  convincing,  and  a  serviceable  book.  ...  A  treatise  vi^hich 
may  be  read  with  delight  by  the  adult,  and  may  also  serve  as  a  school  book 
for  the  young.  .  .  .  Mr.  Joseph  writes  with  fervor  of  manner  as  well  as 
with  sobriety  of  method,  and  Judaism  exerts  a  new  fascination  in  his  pages 
—  at  once  full  as  they  are  of  information  and  of  charm.  Never  before  has 
Mr.  Joseph  so  fully  revealed  both  the  extent  of  his  knowledge  and  the  graces 
of  his  style.     English  Jews  will  be  deeply  grateful  to  him."  — Jewish  Chronicle. 

"A  great  work  on  the  Jewish  Religion,  not  a  mere  booklet,  or  essay,  not 
even  an  ordinary  handbook,  but  a  comprehensive  and  satisfying  exposition 
of  its  principles  and  practices.  To  say  that  this  treatise  fills  a  gap  in  our 
scanty  bibliography  of  Anglo-Judaica  would  express  inadequately  the  value  of 
the  work.  It  is  a  contribution  to  Jewish  literature  which  proves  to  be  indis- 
pensable. ...  A  work  which  appeals  at  one  and  the  same  time  to  the 
scholar  and  to  the  uninformed,  to  adults  and  to  young  people." — Jewish  World. 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 


By  CLAUDE  G.   MONTEFIORE 

Liberal  Judaism.    An  Essay 

Crown  8vo,  216  pp.,  $1.25  net 

"  Mr.  Montefiore  has  written  so  attractive  and  forcible  a  book  that  it  must 
arrest  general  attention.  .  .  .  The  book  is  at  once  timely  and  well 
conceived."  — Jewish  Chronicle. 

Truth  in  Religion  and  Other  Sermons 

Cloth,  i2nio,  ix  +  286  pp.,  $1.25  net 

Twenty  sermons  delivered  at  the  services  of  the  Jewish  Religious  Union 
in  London  within  the  last  two  or  three  years. 

The  Bible  for  Home  Reading 

Edited  with  Comments  and  Reflections  for  the  Use 
of  Jewish  Parents  and  Children. 

PART    I.     To  the  second  visit  of  Nehemiah  to  Jerusalem. 

PART  II.     Containing   Selections   from   the    Wisdom    Literature,    the 

Prophets,  and  the  Psalter,  together  with  Extracts  from  the 

Apocrypha. 

Each,  cloth,  i2mo,  $1.2 j  net 
THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS.    35  cents  net 

"The  scholarship,  the  spiritual  insight,  the  attractive  style,  which  distin- 
guished the  first  part  of  Mr.  Montefiore's  Bid/e  for  Nome  Reading  are 
displayed  in  their  fullest  development  in  the  second  part,  now  happily 
published.  But,  good  as  the  older  book  was,  the  new  is  even  better. 
Mr.  Montefiore  had  indeed  a  great  responsibility.  How  wonderfully  he 
has  risen  to  the  occasion,  how  splendid  a  use  he  has  made  of  the  oppor- 
tunity, we  shall  endeavor  to  show.  But  we  cannot  refrain  from  saying 
that  this  book  is  the  despair  of  a  reviewer.  One  cannot  hope  to  do  jus- 
tice to  such  a  work  when  its  800  pages  are  full  to  overflowing  of  learning 
simply  utilized,  of  moral  truths  reverently  enunciated,  of  spiritual  possi- 
biiities  forcibly  realized,  while  over  all  there  hovers  a  charm  indefinable, 
yet  easily  and  inevitably  felt  by  any  reader  of  the  book.  We  will,  how- 
ever, try  to  indicate  some  of  the  excellences  of  Mr.  Montefiore's  book, 
the  publication  of  which  is  the  most  important  literary  event  of  recent 
years,  so  far  as  the  English-speaking  Jews  are  concerned.  ...  As  mas- 
terly as  it  is  spiritual,  as  scholarly  as  it  is  attractive."  — Jewish  Chronicle. 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 


ISRAEL   ZANGWILL'S  STORIES   OF  JEWISH  LIFE 

Children  of  the  Ghetto 

"  A  book  apart  from  anything  he  has  written  ;  no  matter  what  he  may 
henceforth  write,  this  book  will  stand  alone  as  a  classic  of  the  Ghetto." 

—  TAe  Bookman. 

"A  masterpiece  as  a  novel  —  as  a  picture  of  Jewish  life  exceedingly 
valuable  and  interesting."  —  Providence  News. 

Ghetto  Tragedies      U  New  Edition) 

"  Ghetto  tragedies,  torn  from  life  and  presented  in  their  grim,  compel- 
ling force  as  no  one  else  could  write  them  .  .  .  revealing  dramatic  force, 
intense  realism,  infinite  pity,  and  certain  knowledge."  —  Boston  Herald. 
"  In  the  highest  degree  thrilling,  and  the  most  frivolous  reader  will  be 
drawn  on  from  story  to  story  with  irresistible  fascination."  —  Daily 
Evening  Transcript,  Boston. 

Ghetto  Comedies 

"  Mr.  Zangwill,"  says  one  of  his  recent  critics,  "  is  something  more  than 
a  very  clever  Jewish  writer  and  a  leader  in  the  Zionist  movement.  He  is 
also  one  of  the  strongest  and  most  original  forces  in  Enghsh  fiction  at 
the  present  time." 

"  A  glowing,  vivid  portrayal  of  his  people,  with  all  the  pulsating  sympa- 
thy of  one  who  understands  them,  with  all  the  picturesque  fidelity  of  the 
artist  who  appreciates  their  spiritual  significance."  —  Hebrew  Journal. 

The  King  of  Schnorrers:   Grotesques  and 
Fantasies    illustrated 

"  The  audacity  of  this  is  something  unequalled,  and  it  is  enhanced  by  the 
pithy  and  original  style  in  which  the  author  writes."  —  Boston  Budget. 

Each^  cloth,  $1.50 

PUBLISHED  BY 

THE   MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH   AVENUE,   NEW  YOEK 


J^of^  Due 


DATE  DUE 

^ 

^^jg. 

«^ 

1 

^ 

1 

III    1                iiii><|iF 

£w*dny,liiijlMli 

•  ••-  ■  •■■:A 

••^waiiB, 

mmm 

.***<^i^^^^ 

t'' 

^.-.^- 

., 

l« 

.._      

DEMCO  38-297 

';r     S'-i 


<*  Vs> 


■» ^"  M 


'% 


